
rj us 



Book. 



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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



COMPRESSED AIR 

FOR THE METAL WORKER 



By 

Charles A. Hirschberg 



FIRST EDITION 

Illustrated 




NEW YORK 
I9I7 






COPYRIGHT 19 1 7 
BY 

Clark Book Company, Inc 



APR 14 1917 



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"Douglas Q % zMccMurtrie 
^{jw York 



'CI.A457948 
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TABLE OF CONTENTS 
Chapter Page 

I Historical . i 

Progress made in Compressed Air Inventions, i. 

II The Compressed Air Power Plant ... 6 

Glossary of Compressed Air Terms, 6; Selecting the Air 
Compressor, 9; The Cost of Compressed Air, 9; Compres- 
sor Types, 10; Classification of Air Compressors by Drives, 
10; Compressor Descriptions, 14; Compressor Tables of 
Sizes and Capacities, 25. 

III Compressor Details ■ . 46 

Air Valves, 46; Intercoolers, 52; Steam Valves, 55; Lubri- 
cation, 59; Regulation, 62. 

IV Compressor Accessories 69 

Aftercoolers, 69; Air Receivers and Moisture Traps, 71; 
Air Reheaters, 72; Protective Devices, 73; Compressor 
Accessories, Table of Sizes and Capacity, 75. 

V Installation and Care of Compressors, Ac- 
cessories and Pipe Lines 79 

Locating the Air Compressor, 79; Compressor Foundations, 
79; Belted Compressors, 81; Steam Piping, 82; Exhaust 
Piping, 83; Steam Cylinder Lubricators, 83; Gasket Joints, 
83; Starting, 84; Setting Steam Valves, 84; Lubrication, 
84; Inspection and Cleaning, 86; Water Piping, 87; Gas- 
kets, 88; Short Belt Drive, 88; Installing Pipe Lines, 88. 

VI Portable Pneumatic Tools . . . . . . 91 

Adaptation, 91; Hoists, 92; Motors, 94; Pneumatic Drills, 
95; Grinders, 97; Buffers, 97; Pneumatic Hammers, 98; 
Jam Riveter, 101; Yoke Riveter, 101; Holder-on, 103; 
Sand Rammer, 103; Die SinKefsjiand Pattern Carvers, 104; 
Tables of Sizes and Capacities, 105. 

VII Care and Operation of Pneumatic Tools . 119 

Oiling, 119; Cleaning, 119; Overloading, 120; General 
Suggestions, 120. 

VIII Compressed Air Uses in the Power Plant 112 

Uses, 122; Tube and Flue Cleaners, 123; Repairing Boilers, 
125; Removing Concrete Foundations, 125; Rolling Boiler 
Flues, 127; Hoisting, 127; Ash Conveying, 128; Atomizing 
Oil, 128^ 



IV CONTENTS 

IX Compressed Air in the Foundry . . . . 129 

Sand Rammers, 129; Records of Performance. 129; Sand 
Sifters, 132; Molding Machines, 133; Power Squeezing 
Machines, 137; How to Operate, 138; Split Pattern Squeez- 
ing Machines, 140; How to Operate, 140; Records of Per- 
formance, 142: Roll-over Jarring Molding Machines, 144; 
Operation, 146; Records of Performance, 147; Jolt Ramming 
or Jarring Machines, 147; Records of Performance, 148; 
Combination Jarring and Roll-over Machines, 153; Rec- 
ords of Performance, 153; Air Hoists, 154; AL' Motors, 156; 
Chipping Hammers, 156; Pneumatic Drills, 159; Oil 
Torches, 160; Tables of Sizes and Capacities, 161. 

X Sand Blasting 166 

Sand Blast in the Foundry, 166; Nozzles, 167; Condition 
of Air, 168; Abrasives, 168; Sand Blast Equipment, 170; 
Air Separator, 171; Sand Blast Barrel, 172; Sand Blast 
Table or Car, 172; Rotating Sand Blast Table Machine, 
172; Sand Separators, 175; Sand Drier, 176; Dust Ar- 
resters or Ventilating Systems, 177; Gloves, 179; Hoods 
and Respirators, 179; Sand Blast Rooms, 179; Records of 
Performance, 184; Miscellaneous Uses for the Sand Blast, 
188; Tables of Sizes and Capacities, 190. 

XI Compressed Air Uses in the Machine Shop . 195 

Air Hoists, 195; Pneumatic Drill, 197; Records of Per- 
formance, 197; Chipping Hammers, 205; Records of Per- 
formance, 206; Pneumatic Presses, 206; Chucking Work, 
208; Air-Operated Vise, 214; Arbor Press, 215; Tables of 
Sizes and Capacities, 21 5. 

XII Compressed Air Uses in the Forge Shop . . 217 

Air Forging Hammers, 217; Record of Performance, 218; Air 
and Steam Operation Compared, 221. 

XIII Compressed Air Uses in Boiler Shops and 

Structural Steel Plants 226 

Uses, 226; Forming or Pressing, 226; Bending 01 Shaping, 
227; Hoisting, 228; Punching, 228; Drilling and Reaming, 
229; Records of Performance, 229; Riveting, 231; Records 
of Performance, 233; Calking, Trimming and Chipping, 243; 
Records of Performance, 243; Stay Bolt Drivers, 246; Flue 
and Tube Welders, 246; Records of Performance, 246; 
Portable Rivet Heaters, 247. 

XIV Hoisting — Handling — Conveying .... 249 

Hoisting and Handling, 249; Hoisting Costs, 250; Records of 
Performance, 263; Conveying, 265. 



CONTENTS V 

XV Cleaning with Compressed Air 270 

Discussion of Methods, 270; Uses for Blow Guns, 271; 
Types of Nozzles, 275; Discharge of Air Through Orifice, 
279. 



XVI The Application of Paint, Lacquer, Enamel, 
Metal Coating, etc., by Compressed Air . 

Application, 283; Air Brushes, 286; Records of Perform- 
ance, 291, Metal Spraying, 293. 



283 



XVII Pumping with Compressed Air 297 

Systems, 297; Air Lift Pump, 297; Air Lift Booster, 302; 
Transferring Liquids, 303; Pneumatic Displacement Pump, 
305; Automatic Montejus, 307; Emptying Barrels, 310; 
Acid Egg, 311; Ejector, 312; The Return Air System, 312; 
Reciprocating Pumps, 314; Agitating Liquids, 315. 

XVIII Pumping 297 



PREFACE 

The author has frequently been called upon to explain in a 
practical way how compressed air is used for this or that purpose 
in the metal-working field. Upon many occasions he has sought 
assistance from current engineering literature in answering these 
questions. From these experiences he has been impressed with 
the dearth of practical information in published form relating to 
the industrial uses of compressed air. It is the rule that modern 
engineering practice is invariably in advance of its literature, and 
compressed air engineering is no exception to the rule. It was 
the recognition of this situation that led the author to undertake 
the writing of this work. 

It is believed that this book is unique among those published 
in recent years in confining itself to discussion of the practical 
side of compressed air utilization. It aims to tell how and why. 
Theory — when referred to at all — is discussed concisely and in 
non-technical language. 

It is felt that this method of treatment will appeal strongly 
to shop owners, superintendents, foremen and machinists or 
other artisans. At the same time, the book should prove of con- 
siderable value to mechanical engineering students, used to 
supplement a theoretical text-book on compressed air engineering. 
The numerous applications cited should suggest to the engineer 
many new and better ways for carrying on various shop opera- 
tions. 

The industries in the metal-working field served by compressed 
air are many and varied. To cite only a few, there are. the 
machine tool builders; manufacturers of metal and coal mining 
machinery; quarrying machinery manufacturers; ammunition 
and firearms manufacturers; automobile manufacturers; gas 
and gasoline engine builders; steam engine builders; electrical 
manufacturers; hoisting and conveying machinery manufac- 
turers; structural workers; ship builders, etc. 

The narration of the story of Compressed Air in the Metal- 
Working Field is essentially a compilation of experiences and 
individual accomplishments. It presents certain difficulties due 
to the fact that not only are these applications carried out in 

vii 



PREFACE Vlll 

machine shops, forge shops, foundries, power plants, etc., but 

accessory to each work is a repair shop for the maintenance of 

the manufacturing equipment. Likewise, such industries as 

textile, glass and furniture manufacturing, mining, engineering, 

etc., have their own repair shops, and the information in % the 

following chapters applies equally as well to them, although it is 

not the intention to refer to such industries specifically. 

The entire subject has been classified under the following 

heads: 

Power Plants Forge Shops 

Foundries Boiler and Structural Shops 

Machine Shops Miscellany 

The chief uses of Compressed Air Power in the industries 
cited are: 

Agitating, transferring and atomizing liquids. 

Aerating liquids and metals. 

Conveying, handling and hoisting. 

Cleaning machinery. 

Drying. 

Metal spraying. 

Painting, enameling and whitewashing. 

Pumping water and other liquids. 

Starting. 

Testing. 

Operating various tools, such as: 

Boiler tube cleaners,* chipping, calking 
and riveting hammers, flue rollers, port- 
able grinders, drills, augers, etc. 

Operating heavy machines, such as: 

Bending presses, forging hammers, mold- 
ing and sand blasting machines, smith 
forges, tempering furnaces, etc. 

The author wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to those 
who kindly assisted in gathering the information, also to the 
Compressed Air Magazine and other technical trade papers. 

Charles A. Hirschberg. 
ii Broadway, 
New York City. 

November j, iqi6. 



CHAPTER I 
HISTORICAL 

The earliest record of the use of compressed air is that of 
Ctesibius of Alexandria, who invented an implement for war 
consisting of a tube out of which an arrow was shot by the 
compression of air. 

Known history accords the honor as the second experimenter 
with compressed air to a certain Heron, a pupil of Ctesibius and 
also of Alexandria. He lived and invented and died under the 
reign of the Ptolemies of Egypt between the years 284 B. c. and 
221 B. c. The pneumatic experiment known as Hero's Fountain, 
in which a jet of water is sustained by compressed air, is attrib- 
uted to him. It will be noted that the early means for recording 
history were unkind to Heron, having dropped the 'n' from 
his name in referring to this experiment. 

Heron is on record as the author of numerous writings and 
experiments on 'Pneumatics.' It is recorded that he applied 
his knowledge of the influence of heat, in expanding and con- 
tracting air, to the opening and closing of temple doors, which 
mystified the ancients and to them vested the priests of the 
temple with supernatural powers and caused them to be held in 
great awe. 

From the efforts of Ctesibius and Heron to the next recording 
of history on the subject of compressed air, we are led in our 
journey over a space of several centuries to the discovery by 
Galileo in the early part of the 17th century of the underlying 
principle of the compressed air industry; namely, that air was 
ponderable, and then came the invention by Otto von Guericke 
of Magdeburg of the first air pump in 1650. 

As with nearly all the great powers of modern science, progress 
in the early days was by slow and painful stages through a great 
many failures and seemingly insurmountable difficulties into the 
realm of practical knowledge and successful application of the 
present day. 

The following is a brief chronology of some of the inventions 



2 COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 

and discoveries between the 17th century and the present time, 
in so far as they relate to the mission of this book. 

In 1726, Rowe took out a patent in England for raising water 
by generated, expanded, or compressed air. 

In 1753, Holl is credited with having used an air engine for 
raising water. 

In 1757, Isaac Wilkinson patented a method of compressing 
air by the use of a column of water having a series of vessels, using 
one after the other, so as to keep up a constant pressure. 

In 1788, Smeaton invented at Ramsgate Harbor, Kent, a 
pump for use in connection with diving apparatus. 

In British patent No. 2,299, February 28, 1799, George Med- 
hurst compressed air for motive power by means of a windmill. 

Toward the end of the 17th century the first suggestion of the 
transmission of air power, through pipes for use at a distance, 
came from Dr. Denys Papin, of France, to whom we are also 
indebted for the first conception of the pneumatic dispatch tube. 

The latter idea remained dormant for nearly one hundred years 
after his death, when George Medhurst secured an English 
patent (1810) "For a means of conveying goods, letters, parcels 
and passengers by means of a tube and blast of compressed air." 

18 16 witnessed the invention of a Dr. Sterling and his brother 
James Sterling, C.E., of Edinburgh, Scotland, of a compressed 
air engine. This engine was not, however, a commercial success, 
but proved an important step in the advancement of the science. 
It stimulated interest and further investigation. 

Shortly after Medhurst's invention, Burnell is credited with 
having applied compressed air to caisson work. 

April 29, 1828, Bompas, in a provisional British patent, No. 
5,644, proposed to propel locomotives by compressed air. 

The most decided advance in the principles of air compression 
occurred in 1829, when William Mann, in an application for a 
patent stated: "The condensing pumps used in compressing the 
air, I make of different capacities according to the density of the 
fluid to be compressed — those used to compress the higher dens- 
ities being proportionately smaller than those previously used to 
compress it at the first or lower densities, etc." 

He further stated that, by the application of compressed air, 
power and motion can be communicated to fixed machinery, 
carriages, locomotives and ships. 



HISTORICAL 3 

In 1830, Thilorier, a Frenchman, received a medal from the 
French Academy of Sciences for his method of compressing 
gases by stages. 

James Surrey, in British patent No. 7,179, September 1, 1836, 
lays claim to the use of compressed air for the purpose of working 
engines hitherto worked by steam, and suggests portable vessels 
filled with compressed air; especially for railways, for which also 
he suggested having air pumps running from station to station. 

In 1844, Caligny published his idea of applying the hydraulic 
ram to compressing air. 

In 1847, von Rathen was granted an English patent for the 
process of cooling the air by water in the cylinder, or by sur- 
rounding it with cold water. He also described a reservoir for 
storing air, a means for cooling it after compression, and a mode 
of heating the air to give it greater tension after it is compressed. 

October 7, 1847, Patent No. 11,897, Richard and James Fell — 
Compressor and Receiver or Reservoir for storing the air along 
the track of a railroad. 

In 1849, von Rathen suggested the use of compressed air under 
high pressure for locomotive haulage. 

It was also during the years intervening from 18 16 to about 
i860 that Captain Ericsson of war vessel fame conducted experi- 
ments with compressed air engines. His efforts failed of the 
desired results, i. e., successful commercial application. 

1 85 1 records the application of compressed air by William 
Cubitt to bridge work at Rochester Bridge. 

In 1852 was patented by Professor Calladon of Geneva the ap- 
plication of compressed air for driving machine drills in tunnels. 
In collaboration with M. Sommeiller, he developed his idea 
and applied it to the driving of the Mt. Cenis Tunnel during 
1861. 

In 1854, the same patentee, however, describes a method of 
pumping air in which he claims the construction of end valves, 
so as to cover the whole end of the cylinders to which they are 
applied, and repeats Mr. Mann's process of stage-pumping 
(patented twenty-five years before) in the following words: 
"The construction of air pumps with a series of cylinders of 
progressively diminishing capacity." 

Moses Poole, in a communication, British patent No. 692, 
March 21, 1853, suggests absorbing the heat of compression by 



4 COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 

a water jet, and supplies by artificial means the heat necessary 
to expand the air before use. 

January 15, 1854 — Patent No. 88 — Arthur Parsey (British), 
double-acting air pump with hollow piston and rod, through 
which air is admitted above and below the piston. The valve 
may be as large as the cylinder. The rod passes through the 
valve and has a spiral spring to keep the valve seated. In this 
patent, stage-pumping is mentioned. 

Augustin Grass, January 2, 1857, No. 21 (provisional protection 
only), obtaining motive power by a steam engine pumping air 
into a reservoir connected by a coil of tubes in the boiler furnace. 
The air in the coil becoming heated and highly elastic, to be 
used in an air engine. 

James Harris, in British patent No. 25, January 2, 1857, 
proposes, in addition to compressing air to be used at a distance 
in air engines, exhausting it. 

H. A. Jowett, in British patent No. 2,110, July 25, 1862, 
proposes compressing air by water power, and carrying it long 
distances in pipes, having sliding-valves at regular intervals, to 
test their tightness, and plugs at suitable stations, which will 
yield motive fluid to drive fire pumps. 

W. A. Turner and T. T. Goughin, in British patent No. 3,140, 
December 17, 1864, obtained provisional protection on stage- 
pumping, there being reservoirs between the pumps. 

In 1867, Sir George Cayley and Philander Shaw exhibited at 
the Paris Exhibition the first air-compressing engine approaching 
real commercial success. 

In 1869, George Westinghouse invented his first type of rail- 
road air brake, which finally culminated in its perfection in 
the year 1887. 

In the United States patent granted December 23, 1879, to 
W. P. Tatham, of Philadelphia, there is a steam and an air 
piston, each reciprocating in a cylinder, and a double-armed 
rock shaft, connected with the steam and air piston rods, 
these members being combined for joint operation to com- 
press air under a decreasing leverage of the air piston arm, 
and a correspondingly increasing leverage of the steam 
piston arm. 

It was in the late forties that experiments were conducted 
and patents taken out by J. J. Couch of Philadelphia, on the 



HISTORICAL 5 

percussive rock drill. This machine is an American invention. 
Couch was aided in his work by Joseph W. Fowle. 

In 1848, these two separated, Fowle filing a caveat in 1849, 
covering the type of successful power rock drill in use today. 

Wm. Fowle in his testimony before the Massachusetts Legis- 
lative Committee in the contest with Burleigh in 1874 described 
this important invention as follows — "My first idea of ever 
driving a rock drill by direct action came about in this way: I 
was sitting in my office one day after my business had failed, 
and happening to take up an old steam cylinder model I uncon- 
sciously put it in my mouth and blew the rod in and out, using 
it to drive in some tacks with which a few circulars were fastened 
to the walls." 

The work of a German, Schumann, in 1854 was the nearest 
approach to rock-drilling inventions abroad. 

Fowle being without means finally sold his patents to Charles 
Burleigh, and he produced the Burleigh drill in the year 1866. 
This drill was used in driving the Hoosac Tunnel in 1867. 

The first air compressor used in America was in the driving of 
the Hoosac Tunnel. 

Following these, came Haupt, De Volson Wood and Simon 
^Ingersoll; after these men, Sergeant, Waring, and Githens, which 
brings this historical record up to the year 1871. And it was 
from this year that the real history of compressed air dates as 
an industrial and economic factor, starting with the rock drill, 
which in its turn called for the manufacture of the commercial 
air compressing machine bringing with it the invention of many 
of the devices employed in the modern manufacturing plant. 

The success of compressed air in this field at once suggested 
its possibilities in other lines, until today its ramifications are 
multitudinous, and it stands second only to electricity in the 
extent and diversity of application. 

In the arts, sciences and manufactures its use accomplishes 
economies which could otherwise never have' been realized. 

Compressed air appliances have exercised a tremendously 
beneficial influence upon improved standards of living. 



CHAPTER II 
THE COMPRESSED AIR POWER PLANT 

GLOSSARY OF COMPRESSED AIR TERMS 

Atmospheric Pressure. The pressure of the surrounding air. 
At sea level it is 14.7 pounds per square inch, becoming less and 
less with the rise in altitude. 

Air Compressor. A machine for compressing air from atmos- 
pheric pressure to a higher pressure. 

Air compressors are built in various classes, such as Vertical, 
Straight-Line and Duplex machines and Turbo, Rotary or Cen- 
trifugal machines; in single-stage, two-stage, three-stage, four- 
stage, etc., depending upon the desired ultimate pressure. They 
may, in all but the Turbo, Rotary or Centrifugal class, be either 
single or double acting. 

Vertical Compressors. In this class the compressing ele- 
ment is placed in a vertical plane above and in line with the 
driving element. 

Straight-Line Compressors. In this class the driving and 
compressing elements are placed in a horizontal plane in line 
with one another. 

Duplex Compressors. Two straight-line units placed parallel 
on one common crank shaft. 

Turbo, Rotary or Centrifugal Compressors. Machines in 
which the compressing element is of rotating construction. 

Single-Stage . One compressing cylinder, from which the air 
is discharged into the air receiver of the transmission line. 

Two or More Stages. More than one compressing cylinder, 
the air being compressed successively up to a certain pressure in 
each cylinder until it is discharged into the receiving line at the 
ultimate desired pressure. With stage compressors it is usual to 
employ an intercooler and moisture trap, and where the very 
greatest refinement is wanted, an aftercooler. 

Single -Acting. The compression of air on but one stroke of 
the piston. 

Double-Acting. The compression of air on both strokes of 
the piston. 

6 



THE COMPRESSED AIR POWER PLANT 7 

Single-Stage, Duplex. A compressor of duplex type having 
two single-stage cylinders, each discharging directly into the re- 
ceiving line. 

Two-Stage, Duplex. A compressor of the duplex type hav- 
ing two air cylinders, the air being compressed successively in 
each to a certain pressure and then discharged into the receiving 
line at the ultimate desired pressure. 

Air Receiver. A receptacle into which the compressed air is 
discharged from the compressor. 

Intercooler. A device for extracting the heat of compression 
generated in the first cylinder (and not removed by the cylinder 
jacket cooler) before the air enters the next compressing cylinder 
of a two-stage compressor. Compressors of more than two stages 
usually have intercoolers between successive stages. 

Cylinder Jacket Cooler. A space surrounding the com- 
pressing cylinder filled with water in circulation, for keeping the 
cylinder walls, piston, cylinder heads and valves cool, so as to 
keep down the heat of compression. 

Valves, Inlet. Devices for admitting air to the air cylinder 
and to prevent its return when being compressed. 

Valves, Discharge. Devices for permitting the discharge of 
compressed air from the air cylinder after its pressure has ex- 
ceeded that in the transmission line. 

Valves are of two distinct types, mechanically operated and 
automatic. 

Mechanically operated valves depend for their opening and 
closing on some external mechanical means, usually driven from 
the crank shaft. Their time of opening and closing is fixed. 

Automatic valves depend for their opening and closing en- 
tirely upon pressure differences — in the case of the inlet valve, 
between atmosphere and cylinder and with the outlet valve, be- 
tween cylinder and discharge pressures. 

Moisture Trap. A means for collecting and removing mois- 
ture, precipitated from the air during the process of cooling. 

Aftercooler. A means for reducing the heat of compression, 
generated in the final stage of compression of stage machines and 
also for the further extraction of moisture. 

Reheater. A means, adjacent to the point of use, for raising 
the temperature of the compressed air. 



8 COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 

Heat of Compression. The action of compressing air gen- 
erates heat above that of the intake temperature of the air. Most 
of the heat is due to the increased molecular activity of the air 
and part of it to mechanical friction, such as the rubbing of the 
piston in the cylinder and the friction of the air through the 
valves and air passages. 

Intake Temperature. Temperature of the air entering the 
compressor from the atmosphere. 

If the heat could be retained in the air it would result in the 
highest economy, but inasmuch as it is usually transmitted over 
considerable distances, radiation occurs and the result is a re- 
duced volume of air. 

The higher the temperature of the air, the greater it will 
expand in volume and, conversely, the lower the temperature, 
the smaller will be the volume. With the pressure constant the 
weight per unit of space occupied will be lower at high tempera- 
tures than at low; in other words reducing the temperature 
increases the air's density. 

Therefore, to effect the greatest economy in compression of 
air, or stating it in still another way, to get the greatest volume 
of air compressed to a given pressure from a stated size of com- 
pressor, it is necessary to reduce, to the lowest practical point, 
the temperature of the air before and during compression in 
order that the air after compression may have the greatest den- 
sity. To effect a still further economy, by increasing its volume 
after compressing, the temperature of the air should be raised to 
the highest possible point before use. 

The foregoing explains briefly the desirability of cooling, by 
jacketing the cylinders, providing intercooling in two-stage com- 
pressors and in some cases aftercooling and reheating. 

It also indicates the desirability of having the intake air of the 
lowest possible temperature consistent with economy in obtain- 
ing it. 

Moisture is always present in air. When present in com- 
pressed air it tends to promote freezing where the air is used in 
driving reciprocating mechanisms, due to the expansion of 
the air in doing work. To eliminate this as a source of 
annoyance, it is advisable to make provision for the removal 
of moisture. 



THE COMPRESSED AIR POWER PLANT 9 

The higher the temperature the more moisture-absorbing 
capacity the air will have. Cooling of air, while effecting a re- 
duction in its volume, also causes moisture in the air to be 
thrown off. To provide for the reception and removal of this 
moisture most compressor builders supply a moisture trap. 

Piston Displacement. This is the volume swept through by 
the piston in the compressing cylinder. It is an arbitrary term 
employed for rating compressors. It is somewhat ambiguous, in 
that compressors of different manufacture, having the same cyl- 
inder areas, do not give the same amount of delivered compressed 
air due to their differences of design in essential details. 

Delivered Capacity. The actual volume of free air at atmos- 
pheric pressure delivered. This represents the true capacity of 
a machine. 

Selecting the Air Compressor. As the efficient application 
of compressed air and its economical use are largely dependent 
upon the air compressor, its selection is a matter of prime im- 
portance. 

Of equal importance is the proper installation of the compressor 
and transmission lines and the discussion which follows is to 
give a more intimate acquaintance with compressor types and 
their details, as well as hints on foundation building and the 
general transmission question, based on the experience of the 
foremost builders of compressed air equipment. 

The Cost of Compressed Air. The cost of compressed air 
for whatever purpose and however produced, involves three 
separate items; first, fixed charges such as interest on the invest- 
ment and depreciation; second, cost of operation; third, cost of 
maintenance. 

All three are fundamentally dependent upon the air com- 
pressor's design and construction. While it is true that a low 
first cost may reduce the element of initial investment, it will 
on the other hand increase the other two items, cost of operation 
and cost of maintenance. A cheap price can obtain only a cheap 
design and construction of but temporary value and having 
therefore a limited earning power. If low operating cost is to be 
realized the compressor best adapted to the conditions under 
which it is to work should be selected. Maintenance cost is 
mainly a question of materials and workmanship, and here 



10 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



again a saving in initial cost is more than likely to mean an ulti- 
mate extravagance. 

There are a great many makes of air compressors and a wide 
range of sizes and types to choose from. In choosing, the inex- 
perienced buyer should be guided by precedent, as the weight 
of judgment recognizes precedent as one of the safest guides in 
reaching a decision. 

In addition to the consideration of initial, operating and main- 
tenance costs, is the one of conditions under which the compressor 
is to operate; this latter will determine largely the matter of 
pressure, capacity and method of drive. 

Compressor Types. Compressed air is a power-transmitting 
agency and must therefore derive its power from some prime 
power device, such as the steam engine, the electric motor, gas 
or gasoline engine, oil engine or water impulse wheel. In this 
respect the method of obtaining compressed air compares with 
that of generating electric current. 

As a result of the varied means of drive employed, compressor 
manufacturers make provision for all power conditions, and the 
selection of the air compressor in this respect will depend upon 
individual conditions. 

Classification of Air Compressors by Drive. The air 
compressor may be classified according to the means of drive 
as follows: 



Long- Belted to 



Power- Driven 



Short- Belted to 



Direct Connected to 



Geared to Motor 



k Chain Driven by Motor 



Line shaft 
Gasoline engine 
Gas engine 
Oil engine 
Electric motor 

f Electric motor 
J Gasoline engine 

Gas engine 

Oil engine 

Electric motor 

Gasoline engine 

Gas engine 

Oil engine 

Water wheel or turbine 



THE COMPRESSED AIR POWER PLANT 
f Long-Belted to Steam Engine 
Steam Driven < Short-Belted to Steam Engine 



II 



1 Direct-Connected to ( Steam en * ine 

[ Steam turbine 

Where power is already at hand by belting from line shaft or 
where cheap current is available by belting to electric motor, 
obviously it is more convenient to employ either one of these 
types of drive and the initial cost of equipment will be less than 




Fig. i — The 'long-belted' type of air compressor drive. This 
shows a duplex two-stage machine. 

if a direct steam engine-driven machine were installed with its 
call for boiler power. 

In a great many factories an abundant supply of steam is 
available and this therefore must constitute the controlling fac- 
tor in making a choice of the type of drive. 

For the isolated plant or for semi-permanent installation, as 
well as for portable duty, the oil or gasoline engine-driven types 
have merits not possessed by any of the others. They consti- 
tute a source of cheap power supply and represent a decided 
saving in operating cost. 

For the large installation, demanding the very highest refine- 
ment of design, economy and efficiency of operation, either the 



12 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



Corliss steam-driven, drop valve steam-driven or direct con- 
nected to motor type is essential. 

Where unusually large capacity is wanted and floor space is 
limited it may even be advisable to resort to the turbo type of 
compressor. This latter machine has reached a very high state 
of perfection and there are a number of manufacturers in the 
field in position to supply them, either driven by mixed or live 
steam turbine or coupled to electric motor. 

In the chart covering classifications of air compressor drives 
is mentioned under 'power-driven', the 'long-belted' to engine 




Fig. 2 — The 'short-belted' type of air compressor drive. This 
shows a straight-line, single-stage machine. 



type (gas, gasoline or oil), and the 'short-belted' to engine type 
(gas, gasoline or oil) ; these types of drive are generally supplied 
to meet special requirements or where the prime power mover 
is already at hand ; they are the exceptions rather than the rule. 

The same thing may be said of the ' long- ' and ' short-belted ' 
to steam-engine division under steam-driven types. 

The term 'long-belted' type is applied to a method of drive 
in which a belt is employed and the driver and the driven por- 
tions of the equipment are at a distance from one another, as 
shown in Fig. I. The term 'short-belted' type is applied to a 



THE COMPRESSED AIR POWER PLANT 



13 



method of drive in which the two units are coupled close by a belt 
and an idler employed to obtain belt contact, as shown in Fig. 2. 

The latter method of drive has certain peculiar advantages 
over the former, and these are explained at some length. 

Fig. 3 illustrates the ordinary belt drive in which the distance 
between centers of pulleys must be sufficient to give a reasonable 
arc of belt contact on the motor pulley. With this type of drive 




Fig. 3 — The ordinary 'long-belt' drive. 

the arc of contact rarely exceeds 170 degrees. Fig. 4 shows an 
arrangement sometimes resorted to if the first arrangement fails 
to work satisfactorily. This consists of a tightener pulley 'C 
placed between the pulleys 'A' and 'B' and held firmly against 
the belt. While this increases the arc of contact on the motor 




Fig. 4 — The ordinary 'long-belt' drive employing a belt tightener. 



pulley to between 185 and 190 degrees, it has an undesirable 
effect on the belt in that it increases its tension. 

Fig. 5 shows the so-termed 'Short-Belt Drive'. This, it will 
be noted, consists of a driving pulley, 'A', a driven pulley, 'B,' 
and a floating idler, 'C, the latter being placed on the slack 
side of the belt close to the driving pulley; the idler pulley being 



H 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 




Fig. 5 — The Imperial 'short-belt' drive. 



carried on swinging arms, is free to rise and fall, or in other words, 
to float on the belt. 

This pulley, while light, has sufficient weight to enable it to 
take up the slack and hold the belt against the driving pulley. 
In operation, when the tension on the tight side of the belt in- 
creases and lengthens the slack side, the idler pulley descends 

upon the increased slack 
and wraps the belt further 
around the driving pulley, 
thus still further increasing 
the arc of contact. This 
entire operation is one of 
increasing belt contact with- 
out additional belt tension. 
Most belt transmission 
losses come from slippage 
or from excessive tension. 
These conditions are eliminated with the short-belt drive as 
there is no initial belt tension and 
but very little opportunity for slip- 
page. When the motor is stopped 
there is no strain on the belt and while 
in motion there is only the strain of 
the effort. 

COMPRESSOR DESCRIPTIONS 



Vertical Compressors. In Fig. 6 
is shown a compressor of the vertical 
type arranged for long-belt driving. 
This design of compressor is generally 
confined to small sizes having single- 
stage compressing cylinders. They 
range in capacities up to about 50 
cubic feet of free air per minute, 
piston displacement; pressures run 
between 60 and 125 pounds. See 
Table I. They are rarely built steam- 
driven and are commonly seen short- 
belted to electric motor or direct-con- 




Fig. 6 — A vertical compres- 
sor arranged for long-belt- 
ing. This particular com- 
pressor is equipped with a 
reservoir water head for 
cooling the air cylinder. It 
is a single-stage machine. 



THE COMPRESSED AIR POWER PLANT 



15 




Fig. 7 — A vertical compressor 'short-belt' motor- 
driven. The compressor is arranged for cylinder 
cooling by circulating water. 

nected by flexible coupling to gasoline engines, as shown in Figs. 7 
and 8. See Table II. 




Fig. 8 — A vertical air compressor direct-connected by flexible 
coupling to a vertical gasoline engine, 



16 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 




A portable vertical air compressor. 



Manufacturers furnish them with either air-cooled, circulating 
water-cooled, or reservoir head-cooled cylinders. 

Air-cooled compressors should be employed only for work of 
an intermittent character; the other two classes, however, may 
be employed for general all-around work within their capacities. 





Hpi 


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Fig. 10 — A straight-line power-driven, single-stage air com- 
pressor arranged for 'long-belting' from line shaft, electric 
motor, or other prime mover. 



THE COMPRESSED AIR POWER PLANT 



17 




Fig. 11 — A straight-line, direct-coupled, steam engine-driven air com- 
pressor. The engine is of the piston valve type. The valve is driven 
through the medium of a rocker arm off a crank pin located in the 
hub of one of the fly-wheels. 




Fig. 12 — The straight-line 'short-belt' electric 
motor-driven air compressor. 




Fig. 13 — Straight-line, two-stage, power-driven air compressor 
with overhead intercooler. 



1 8 COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 

In Fig. 9 is shown a Portable Compressor of the vertical type. 
The principal advantage of the portable compressor around the 
shop is for yard use and cleaning purposes that do not justify 
the expense of installing a permanent air line. 

Straight-Line Compressors. Fig. 10 is an illustration of a 
straight-line power-driven compressor arranged for long-belting 
and in Fig. II is shown a steam-driven compressor of the same 
class. The short-belt electric type is illustrated in Fig. 12. 




Fig. 14 — Duplex, two-stage, power-driven air compressor 
arranged for 'long-belting* to electric motor or other 
prime mover. 

All three depict single-stage, double-acting air compressors. 
Machines of this class range in capacities from 75 to 1 ,000 cubic 
feet of free air per minute piston displacement; and pressures 
up to 125 pounds. See Table III and Table IV. 

The oil engine-driven type is shown in Table IX. 

See Table X for straight-line steam r driven machines. 

In Fig. 13 is shown a two-stage machine with intercooler. 
They are built in both power-driven and steam-driven types. 
The capacities range from 150 to 450 cubic feet of free air per 
minute piston displacement; pressure up to 500 pounds. This 
particular class of compressor is usually designated as a ' High- 
Pressure Compressor', and is also furnished in three- and some- 
times four-stage construction for high-pressure duty.- 



THE COMPRESSED AIR POWER PLANT 



19 



These straight-line machines are equipped with automatic 
plate valves as described under the paragraph 'Valves' to follow. 
They are the ideal machines for the small shop or plant as they 
involve but low initial investment and embody a design of con- 
struction refined to such a degree as to make their use economical 
in the small plant. 

Duplex Compressors. In Figs. 14, 15 and 16 are shown air 
compressors of the Duplex type 'Imperial' construction both 
long-belt and short-belt electric and Meyer, plain slide and pis- 




#*i*-6 



Fig. r 5 — Duplex, two-stage air compressor, 'short-belt' electric motor-driven. 

ton valve steam-driven. These compressors range in capacities 
from 180 to 3,600 cubic feet of free air per minute piston dis- 
placement and pressures from 15 to no pounds. They are 
equipped with mechanical inlet valves and automatic outlet 
valves of the type referred to further on. See Table V, Table 
VI, Table VII, Table XI, Table XII, Table XIII, Table XIV, 
Table XV and Table XVI. 

This class of compressor is desirable for medium and fairly 
large capacities at low pressures only. 

Manufacturers of such machines are prepared to furnish them 
in simple duplex, or compound two-stage construction. Steam 
cylinders may also be had — simple or compound. It will be 
noted that, unlike other duplex compressors, the steam machines 



20 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 

























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Fig. 16 — Duplex, two-stage, direct-connected steam engine-driven air 
compressor showing steam engine which is of the automatic adjustable 
balanced piston valve type. 

do not have the air and steam cylinders placed in tandem. They 
are placed at opposite ends of the driving frame. 

Figs. 17 and 18 are illustrations of Corliss steam and drop 
valve engine-driven compressors, duplex type. In this class of 
compressor, employing a modification of the 'Tangye' frame, the 
cylinders are placed in tandem. They find their principal appli- 
cation in plants requiring a large volume of air and where the 




Fig. 17 — Duplex, two-stage, Corliss steam engine-driven air 
compressor. In this type the air and steam cylinders are placed 
in tandem. 



THE COMPRESSED AIR POWER PLANT* 



21 




Fig. 1 8 — Duplex, two-stage, drop valve steam engine-driven air compressor. 

fuel conditions make it desirable to employ the most economical 
form of steam-driving engine. 

See Table XVII and XVIII. 

Cylinders for both steam and air are usually compounded and 
the compressor generally run condensing. They range in capaci- 
ties from 3,500 to 10,000 cubic feet of free air per minute piston 
displacement; pressures from 80 to 125 pounds. 




Fig. 19 — Duplex, two-stage, direct-connected motor-driven air 
compressor. 



22 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 




THE COMPRESSED AIR POWER PLANT 



23 



The Corliss steam engine of this type of compressor employs 
the familiar Corliss valve motion and, therefore, needs no ex- 
tended description. The drop valve type, however, represents a 
comparatively new practice in this country and will, therefore, 
be described in some detail further on. 

A duplex compressor direct connected to motor is shown in 
Fig. 19. The air end construction of this compressor has all the 
features embodied in the air ends of both the Corliss and drop 
valve machines. In fact, they are identical with one exception 




Fig. 21 — Steam turbine-driven turbo blower. 

and that is in the provision made for regulation. The applica- 
tion of this type is principally where large capacity is desired and 
low cost electric current is available. This type of compressor 
generally ranges in capacities from 3,500 to 10,000 cubic feet of 
free air per minute piston displacement; pressures from 80 to 125 
pounds. See Table VIII. 

High-Pressure Compressors. High-pressure compressors 
rarely find their application in the metal-working industry and 
will, therefore, not be discussed further than to state that in 
principle and operation they are identical with the types shown, 
being, however, of multi-stage construction. 



24 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



Rotary Type. In Fig. 20 is shown a steam turbine-driven 
turbo air compressor designed for operation on mixed steam 
pressures. Such machines are also built for operation on live 
steam alone, as well as electric drive. They meet the demand 
for machines of large capacity, occupying the minimum floor 
space. In Fig. 21 is also shown a turbo blower for low-pressure 
work. These blowers can also be supplied with the various com- 
binations of drive. The principal application of the turbo blower 




Fig. 22 — Electric motor-driven low-pressure blower for cupola work, 
blowing furnaces, etc. 



is in blast furnace and Bessemer converter work. They are also 
furnished for gas exhausting and in smaller units, such as is 
shown in Fig. 22 for cupola work, and for supplying blast to oil 
and gas heating and auxiliary furnaces. 

The rotary compressors range in capacities from 3,500 to 10,000 
cubic feet per minute and pressures from 80 to 100 pounds. The 
blowers range in size from 3,000 to 60,000 cubic feet capacity 
per minute; pressures from 16 ounces to 30 pounds. The cupola 
blowers range in capacities from 3,000 to 40,000 cubic feet; 
pressures up to 1^2 pounds. 



THE COMPRESSED AIR POWER PLANT 



25 



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THE COMPRESSED AIR POWER PLANT 



45 



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CHAPTER III 
COMPRESSOR DETAILS 

Air Valves — Poppet Type. These valves are seen on many 
of the compressors in use today and under certain conditions 
are still being offered by manufacturers both for inlet and 
discharge, although they are rapidly giving way to a valve of 
the plate design — one representative type of which is described 
later. 

Poppet valves are automatic in action. The inlet type con- 
sists of a mushroom- topped stem, a cage and a spring which holds 
the valve to its seat in the cage, the latter serving as a guide for 
the stem. The auxiliary nut locks the whole device in place in 
the cylinder. 

Discharge types consist essentially of a mushroom-capped 
valve, spring and cap or bonnet; the spring which rests inside 
the hollow valve stem, between it and the cap, acting to hold the 
valve to its seat, and also as a guide. 

Fig. 23 is a cross-sectional view, showing a typical poppet 
valve cylinder. 

Hurricane-Inlet Type. Fig. 24 illustrates a type of 
automatic valve long in use but since displaced by the plate 
valve, already mentioned. 

This valve is located in the air piston through which air is 
admitted to the cylinder; it consists of two ring valves of 'T' 
cross-section — one on each face. The cross-bar of the 4 T' is the 
valve face seating over ports in the piston. The upright of the 
'T' is a guide section sliding on a guide plate of steel bolted to 
the face of the piston. 

In this type of valve, inertia alone is the force employed in its 
operation. The valves move with the piston. Starting from 
rest at the end of a stroke the leading valve lags until it closes 
the port; increasing pressure in advance of the piston holds it 
tight on the seat. The following valve lags until it strikes the 
guide plate, opening its port. The air rushes in through the 
hollow inlet tube, hollow piston and port, filling the space behind 

4$ 



COMPRESSOR DETAILS 



47 



the piston. At the end of the stroke the following valve slides 
by inertia to its seat. Reversing, the leading valve is already 
closed. The following valve is held tight by the clearance 




Fig. 23 — Cross-section through air compressor equipped with a poppet valve cylinder. 

pressure until the latter has been reduced to atmosphere. The 
valve then lags against its guide plate and free air rushes in. 




Fig. 24 — Hurricane-Inlet valve. This 
type of air conlpressor valve was very 
popular for a great many years. It has 
since been displaced by the plate type of 
valve. 



Fig. 25 shows a cross-section through a cylinder equipped 
with 'Hurricane-Inlet' valves and poppet discharge valves — 
this being the usual combination of air valve construction. 



4 8 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



H^^Tr 


i 


j 


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■ ■■ 





COMPRESSOR DETAILS 



49 




8 2 73 



Fig. 26 — A Corliss air inlet valve. 

Corliss Inlet Air Valves. In Fig. 26 is shown a mechani- 
cally operated air inlet valve which has been and is even today 
very popular with a great many compressor users. This valve 
is operated from eccentrics on the main shaft and its action is 
timed with the movement of the air piston, being partially open 
at the beginning of the stroke — this opening increasing until the 
piston is at its highest speed, when the valve is fully open. 




Fig. 27 — A cross-section through an air cylinder equipped 
with Corliss air inlet and poppet air discharge valves. 



50 COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 

Aside from the driving mechanism, it consists of two main 
parts — the Corliss valve proper and its driving stem. 

This type of valve is commonly employed in conjunction with 
poppet discharge valves as shown in Fig. 27. 

Plate Valves. Fig. 28 shows a completely assembled plate 
valve and Fig. 29 its various parts, with a cross-section illustrated 
in Fig. 30. ' 

In Fig. 31 is shown the valve as applied to compressors of the 
straight-line type and in Fig. 32 as applied to cylinders in duplex 
compressor construction. The operation of this valve is as follows : 
When at rest the valve is held on its seat by the four spring 
arms of the cushion plate *H' against a slight tension of the 





/ 



Fig. 28 — A completely assembled plate valve — front and back views. 

integral valve arms 'M\ As soon as the air pressure required 
to open is reached the valve opens against these spring arms to 
its full opening. The moment the piston starts on its return 
stroke the valve closes. 

The function of the cushion plate is to act as a buffer, absorbing 
any shock that might otherwise fall on the valve. 

Valves vary in size from 4^ to 15 inches in diameter, depend- 
ing upon the size of the compressor. The number of valves also 
varies. They are extremely light for a given valve opening, 
approximately one-third the weight of a poppet valve. 

The thickness of a medium size valve is approximately .07 of 
an inch. 

The lift of the valve is very small, varying from .08 of an inch 
for the smallest size to about .14 of an inch for the largest. 



COMPRESSOR DETAILS 



51 



Advantages Claimed for the Plate Type of Valve. Ex- 
treme simplicity, action independent of outside mechanical power 
sources, high mechanical efficiency, high compression efficiency, 




Fig. 29 — The parts of the plate valve. 



high speed, quiet operation, correct operation in any position, 
great accessibility, easily and cheaply replaced. Surfaces do not 
rub, hence no lubrication is necessary. 




Fig. 30 — A cross-section of the plate valve. 



52 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



Intercoolers. In designing the intercooler the aim of the 
engineer is to obtain a cooler which will cool the air to the great- 
est extent with a given quantity of cooling water, or conversely, 
where water is scarce, the assurance of a given degree of cooling 
with the minimum quantity of cooling water. 




Fig. 31 — A section of an air cylinder of the straight-line type, 
equipped with the plate valve. 



Efficient intercooling in stage compressors, as explained in the 
forepart of this chapter, is of prime importance. It effects a 
decided saving in horse power. Were it possible to cool the air 
after it leaves the first-stage cylinder, so that its temperature 
when entering the next-stage cylinder would be identical with 
the temperature of the air when entering the first-stage cylinder, 
we would have perfect intercooling. This is not, however, obtain- 
able in actual practice, but the importance of the results which 
may be obtained can be appreciated when it is borne in mind 
that with every increase in temperature, of 10 degrees of the 



COMPRESSOR DETAILS 



53 




Fig. 32 — A section through the air cylinder of a duplex compressor, 
equipped with plate valves. 



high-pressure inlet air over the first-stage inlet air, the horse 
power required to compress is increased 1 per cent. 



54 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



The further advantages are: the removal of moisture, already 
referred to, and the final delivery of air at a lower discharge 
temperature. 

In Fig. 33 is shown a cross-section of an intercooler typical of 
present practice. 

The process of cooling is as follows: 
The shell contains tubes arranged in a series of groups through 
which water flows successively, entering the bottom row and 
finding an outlet through the top row. The travel of the water 
is directed by the water heads. At no time does the water come 
in actual contact with the air. 




Fig. 33 — Cross-section through a typical intercooler for two-stage compressors. 

The air enters from the discharge of the first-stage cylinder 
into the intercooler, and is finally discharged into the second- 
stage cylinder. 

Surrounding the water tubes is a series of baffle plates, which 
direct the flow of the air so as to split it up into thin films and 
insure intimate contact with the cold water tube surfaces. By 
reducing the spacing of these baffles as the high-pressure cylinder 
is approached the most efficient velocity of air in transit is 
attained. 

A water separator through which all the air must flow is 
generally placed in the high-pressure inlet leg of the intercooler. 
This water separator consists of a baffle plate which causes the 
water condensed to be precipitated from the air into a pocket. 

When the air comes in contact with the cold tube surfaces, 
condensation of the moisture occurs, and it drips and flows down 
into the bottom of the shell. In order to drain this condensed 
water the intercooler is usually placed at an incline, so that the 
water will flow into the pocket surrounding the water separator 



COMPRESSOR DETAILS 



55 



where a drain cock is provided for the occasional removal of the 
water. 

Temperature changes in the intercooler cause the tubes to 
expand and contract, and in order to provide for this it is custom- 
ary for the best of tubes to be fixed at one end only, while the 
other end, including the water box, is left free to move with the 
tube plate. 

Steam Drives. The usual practice in furnishing steam-driven 
compressor units is to couple the steam engine direct to the air 




Fig. 34 — An air compressor plain D slide valve steam 
cylinder. 



compressing element. Steam engines of various types are 
employed, depending to a large extent upon the size of the 
compressor and the ultimate economy desired. 

Until recently one of the most common types of steam engines 
employed on compressors of comparatively small capacities was 
of the plain D slide valve construction, as shown in Fig. 34. In 
this construction the cut-off was fixed for average working 
conditions. Large sizes have been supplied with Meyer adjust- 
able cut-off valves. 

Recently a decided advance has been made in the adaptation 
of balanced piston steam valve engines. This has been due 
largely to the demand for small and medium size steam-driven 
air compressors, that would operate satisfactorily under high 



56 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



steam pressures and superheat, as well as meeting ordinary steam 
conditions. Fig. 35 shows this type of valve adapted to straight- 
line and duplex steam-driven air compressors. 

Upon reference to Fig. 35 it will be noted that the steam valve 
is of the balanced telescopic piston type. The cut-off valves, one 
for each end of the cylinder, are right- and left-hand threaded to 




Fig- 35 — A plan section through a piston valve steam cylinder. 



the cut-off valve stem, which telescopes through the main valve 
stem. Steam is admitted through the interior of the valve, 
passing in at the center and out through the ports near the end, 
the exhaust being by the ends of the valve. 

The main valve is made in two halves joined midway of its 
length. The ends of the valve, separating the live steam from 
the exhaust, are cast integral with the valve halves. 

As the steam exhausts past the ends of the valve, the valve 
covers and main valve stem packings are subjected to exhaust 
pressure only. 



COMPRESSOR DETAILS 



57 



The suitability of this valve for service under high steam 
pressures and superheat is best illustrated by the following dis- 
cussion : The slide valve, although well adapted for low-pressure 
saturated steam, is impractical for use with either high-pressure 
or high temperature steam. It can be only partially balanced 
and hence, when subjected to high pressures, the resulting fric- 
tion is such as to create excessive wear and produce undue strains 




Fig. 36 — A section through Corliss valve steam cylinder. 



in the valve gear. Even though a valve gear of sufficient pro- 
portions be constructed, the power lost in driving the valve would 
seriously impair the mechanical efficiency of the compressor. 
When subjected to the high temperatures of superheated steam, 
the slide valve is liable to warp, thus preventing contact with 
the valve seat and permitting excessive leakage. Flat bearing 
surfaces are difficult to lubricate properly and, when subjected 
to the high temperatures and pressures of superheated steam, 
lubrication becomes practically impossible. 

As will be seen from the illustration, the port edges of the 
bushing, as well as those of the main valve, are machined in the 
form of a groove which recesses the bridges as well as the port 
edges. This method provides, at the beginning of valve opening, 



58 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



a port equal in length to the circumference of the valve and per- 
mits simultaneous admission of steam at all points on the valve 
periphery. 

The method of bridging the ports of the bushing and those of 
the main valve is worthy of mention. Unlike the customary 
method of dividing the circumference of piston valves into a few 
long ports and bridges which are inadequate to support the rings 
in passing over ports, the construction here shown embodies a 




Fig. 37 — A section through a drop 
valve steam cylinder. 



sufficient number of ports and bridges of such proportions as 
to provide closely spaced supports about the periphery of the 
ring. 

Two very narrow rings are used in each ring groove of the 
valves. The rings are machined concentric. The sides of the 
rings are ground parallel and the circumference is a true circle. 

In Fig. 36 is an illustration of a typical Corliss engine employed 
for driving air compressors. The valve gear is of the Corliss 
liberating type with vacuum dash-pots and double-ported steam 
and exhaust valves. 

Drop Valve. The drop valve is a type admirably adapted 
for use on large and medium size steam cylinders and especially 



COMPRESSOR DETAILS 59 

those operating under high pressures and superheated steam 
conditions. This valve, as shown in Fig. 37, is a double-ported 
poppet valve, lifted by the action of a cam and closed by the 
action of a spring. The valve operating cam derives its motion 
from a reach rod which in turn depends for its motion upon an 
eccentric mounted upon a lay shaft, the latter driven from the 
main shaft by level gears. 

Due to the practically balanced nature of this valve and the 
absence of dash-pots the drop valve engine is capable of operating 
at considerably higher speeds than the Corliss type of engine. 
The large double valve ports and steam passages permit the 
steam to enter and leave the cylinder with great rapidity. 

In the drop valve here illustrated, the valve cage, containing 
the seat, is cast as a separate part, which avoids warping tenden- 
cies under extreme changes of steam temperature. The valve is 
guided by its hollow hub which fits over a turned guide located 
in the bottom of the valve cage. The valve requires no lubricant 
in operation. 

This type of engine is regulated by automatically changing the 
point of cut-off on the high-pressure admission valves. The point 
of admission of these valves is fixed but an increase in speed or 
an increase in air pressure beyond a certain predetermined point 
results in causing an earlier cut-off of steam and the reverse 
conditions result in a later cut-off. 

The low-pressure admission valves and all exhaust valves have 
their eccentrics set to give constant points of admission and 
cut-off. 

A safety stop is provided which shuts down the machine 
instantly should it over-speed for any cause. This is operated 
by a centrifugal weight mounted on the lay shaft, the centrifugal 
force of which is normally balanced by a spring. When the 
machine over-speeds, the weight flies out, strikes a lug which 
releases a weight and in so doing causes the high-pressure admis- 
sion valve operating cams to change their motion in such a way 
that they fail to lift the valves. 

Lubrication. There are a number of lubrication systems 
employed in air compressor design; broadly speaking, however, 
these may be divided into four distinct classes: open oil cup 
lubrication; combined automatic splash and oil cup; combined 
automatic splash and force feed; and force feed alone. 



6o 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



The first is met with only in machines of the very cheapest 
construction, and its use even on such is rapidly becoming 
obsolete practice. 

The second and third are most commonly used as they combine 
good economy with a high degree of automatic action. These 
latter two systems are cleanly and as their operation involves an 
inclosure of all reciprocating parts, the machine itself is less 
subject to wear from dirt and other foreign substances. 




Fig. 38 — Oil cup lubrication of air compressors. This rep- 
represents a practice now practically obsolete. In fact, the 
machine shown in the illustration was built over 10 years ago. 

Force feed alone is used only under special conditions, such 
as very high-pressure work, and is therefore not often encountered 
in the industries covered by this book. 

In Fig. 38 is shown a compressor with oil cup lubrication. A 
machine having automatic lubrication is illustrated in Fig. 39. 

As will be noted from the latter illustration the frame on each 
side has been carried up to form a basin in which the oil is car- 
ried. The crank disc revolves in the oil and carries it up to a 
wiper at the top, which gathers and causes the oil to flow through 
oil feeds to the various bearings. 

In addition the action of the revolving crank disc and con- 
necting rod causes the oil to be splashed to the various bearings. 

Easily removable covers over the frame permit ready access, 
prevent oil from going out and dirt from getting in. - 



COMPRESSOR DETAILS 



61 







no ti era 



62 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



Air and steam cylinder lubrication is usually by means of 
sight feed oilers or force feed pump. 

Regulation. While the regulating devices or governors used 
on air compressors vary in detail among the different builders, 
all may be divided, so far as the principle of operation is con- 
cerned, into two classes. 

The first class is applied to compressors with plain or adjust- 
able cut-off valves of flat or piston type. It operates by throttling 
the steam supply as load diminishes. Devices in this class con- 




Fig. 40 — Typical regulating device applied to compressors of the plain slide 
or piston valve type. 

sist fundamentally of a valve in the steam pipe, which is opened 
or closed by the action of a piston in a cylinder, this piston being 
actuated by air pressure from the receiver. The movement of 
this piston is opposed by weights on a lever or by a spring; and 
the spring tension or the weights may be adjusted so that the 
governor valve is full open at any desired normal air pressure. 
But when pressure exceeds this limit, the tension or weight is 
overcome, and the valve in the steam supply is closed in a degree 
corresponding with the amount of excess pressure. This slows 
down the machine and reduces the volume of air discharged until 
such time as the normal pressure is reached, when the weights or 
spring tension again open the governor valve, and full speed is 
restored. See Fig. 40. 



COMPRESSOR DETAILS 



63 




Fig. 41 — Typical regulating device or governor as applied to com- 
pressors driven by Corliss steam cylinders. 



The second class includes governors applied to machines with 
Corliss steam valves. The mechanism consists of a pressure 
cylinder and piston with opposing weights or springs as described 
in the preceding paragraph; but in this case the movement of 
the governor, instead of throttling the steam, changes the cut- 
off of the steam valves, reducing the speed under partial load, 
and restoring it as load increases. See Fig. 41. 

Both of these classes of governors include also a speed-limiting 
device, the more common form being the familiar fly-ball arrange- 
ment, which throttles the steam supply or greatly shortens the 
cut-off when speed exceeds a certain limit, as it might in case an 
air pipe should break or other accident occur. 



6 4 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



There are occasional instances in which governors of one or 
other of the above classes are used in connection with an unloader 
on the air end, so arranged that, as speed falls off, the load is 
partially taken from the air end. This is also shown in Fig. 40. 
The two general classes defined cover the general requirements 
of this book. 

Since the power-driven compressor is almost always a constant 
speed machine, the methods of regulation and governing described 




Fig. 42 — An air intake regulator applied 
to power-driven air compressors. 



for variable speed steam-driven machines evidently cannot here 
be applied. Constant speed means constant piston displacement; 
and the problem of delivering a variable volume of air with 
constant piston displacement becomes one of making a portion 
of that displacement non-effective in the compression and delivery 
of air. Only the fundamental principles of several methods of 
accomplishing this will be discussed. 

The first method is really one of unloading, rather than of 
regulating. A pressure-controlled mechanism is arranged so that 



COMPRESSOR DETAILS 65 

when pressure exceeds normal, due to excess of delivered volume 
over demand, a communication is opened between the two sides 
of the compressing piston. Usually this is accomplished by open- 
ing and holding open one or several of the discharge valves at 
both ends of the cylinder, the air then simply sweeping back and 
forth from one side of the piston to the other through the open 
valves and the air discharge passage. When normal pressure is 
restored, the valves are automatically closed, and compression 
and delivery are resumed. Evidently this is practically a total 
unloading of the machine for a longer or shorter period — a sudden 
release from load and a sudden resumption of load. Moreover, 
the air which is swept back and forth by the piston in its travel 
is air under full pressure; so that when the discharge valves sud- 
denly close, the piston at once encounters a full cylinder of air at 
maximum pressure. These facts limit regulators of this class to 
machines of comparatively small capacity. 

Another method provides, by means of a pressure-operated 
device, for the partial or total closing of the compressor intake 
under reduced load. See Fig. 42. To avoid the dangers attendant 
upon such an operation acting suddenly, these devices are pro- 
vided with some damping mechanism so that they are compelled 
to operate slowly, making the release or resumption of the load 
gradual. The cutting down of the air intake results in a rarefica- 
tion of the air entering the cylinder, and a greater range between 
initial and discharge pressures, with a corresponding increase in 
the range of temperatures. This method of regulation, therefore, 
is not suitable for very great load variations; nor is it recom- 
mended for such conditions by the builders responsible for it. 

The third method is very similar to the first, except that here 
the inlet valves, instead of the discharge valves, are held open 
when the machine is unloaded, the piston thus simply drawing 
in and forcing out air at atmospheric pressure. It is open to the 
same criticism (though in somewhat less degree) as the first method, 
namely, shock and strain on release and resumption of load. 

The fourth method uses a pressure-controlled valve on the 
compressor discharge of single-stage machines, combining also 
the functions of a check valve to limit the escape of air from the 
receiver or air line. Excessive pressure blows the discharge to 
atmosphere, instead of into the line. This arrangement is also 
used on two-stage machines by placing it on the low-pressure 



66 COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 

discharge to the intercooler. Then, when the governor valve is 
opened by excess pressure, the low-pressure cylinder discharges 
to atmosphere, and the high-pressure cylinder acts simply as a 
low-pressure cylinder with intake at atmospheric pressure. This 
device is more of a relief valve than an unloader, for the piston 
must continue to compress to a pressure which will open the dis- 
charge valves; and this volume of compressed air, with its power 
equivalent, is wasted. 




Fig. 43 — A clearance regulator applied to large power-driven air 
compressors. 

Yet another method of regulation provides auxiliary clearance 
spaces, or pockets, at each end of the cylinder which are suc- 
cessively 'cut in' as load diminishes. The excess air is simply 
compressed into these clearance spaces and expanded on the 
back stroke. The capacity of the cylinder is reduced without any 
appreciable waste of power, for the energy used in compressing 
the clearance air is given back by its expansion. See Fig. 43. 

On power-driven compressors with Corliss intake valves, 
several different methods of unloading or regulating are used. 



COMPRESSOR DETAILS 67 

By one method, the Corliss valve is held open for the full 
admission stroke, and also for a part of the compression stroke, 
this latter portion being determined by the unloading called for. 
Evidently this is practically equivalent to a shortening of the 
stroke of the compressor. 

By another method the Corliss intake valve is opened full at 
beginning of admission, but closes later in the admission stroke. 
The air admitted to that point is expanded or rarefied for the 
remainder of the compression stroke, and then compressed, the 
volume of compressed air delivered being of course reduced. 
This arrangement is productive of an excessive temperature 
range in the cylinder. Still a third method opens and holds open 
the intake valves at one end of the cylinder, or at opposite ends 
in duplex machines. The effect of this is to make ineffective one 
out of every two strokes. If still further unloading is necessary, 
the intake valves at the other end of the cylinder or cylinders 
are opened and held open. The three arrangements just outlined 
all operate by a pressure-controlled mechanism which actuates 
some form of trip on the Corliss air valve gear, somewhat similar 
to the release mechanism of the Corliss steam valve for varying 
the cut-off. 

In the regulation of the power-driven compressor, less reliance 
must be placed upon the automatic regulation of the individual 
machine than upon the intelligent subdivision of the load be- 
tween two or more machines and upon the careful management 
of the resulting plant. In designing a plant of these machines, 
maximum capacity must be cared for in the normal output of 
the machines, while partial loads are best provided for by start- 
ing or stopping one or more machines, the remainder running at 
or very near full load. 

It is usually desirable to start a power-driven compressor with 
no load, throwing on the load gradually after normal speed has 
been reached. This is in fact essential in machines driven by 
electric motors, for the heavy inrush of current in starting under 
load is dangerous, particularly where power is taken from a trans- 
mission circuit supplying other motors. Evidently almost any 
of the unloading devices noted in the previous section can be 
used for this purpose if properly arranged for manipulation. The 
usual form, however, is simply a by-pass valve to atmosphere on 
the line close to the compressor protected by a check valve be- 



68 COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 

tween it and the receiver to prevent the return of air from the 
line when the starting unloader valve is open. This check valve 
is essential where several compressors serve one line, permitting 
cutting in or out any machine without unloading the others. 
When normal speed is reached the by-pass or unloading valve is 
gradually closed and load resumed. On two-stage machines, an 
unloader valve should be provided on the low-pressure discharge 
to the intercooler, as well as on the high-pressure discharge to 
the line. In the latter case, both cylinders operate momentarily 
as low-pressure cylinders. 



CHAPTER IV 
COMPRESSOR ACCESSORIES 

Aftercoolers. The air aftercooler performs the combined 
function of cooling and drying the air after it has left the com- 
pressor, by bringing the hot, moist air in contact with water- 
cooled surfaces of such extent and over such a duration of time, 
that the moisture in the air will be condensed and deposited 
before it can enter the distribution system. 

The advantages of the aftercooler are best illustrated by a 
discussion of the action of moisture in compressed air. Where 
the air is to be used in reciprocating mechanisms, the presence of 
moisture has a tendency to wash away the lubricant, leaving 
bare surfaces in moving contact and increasing the opportunity 
for wear. This is particularly true of pneumatic devices, such 
as riveters, drills, hoists, etc., used in the metal-working industry, 
as their moving parts, of necessity limited in size, operate at high 
speeds. 

Wear is not only destructive of the efficiency of the device, 
but wasteful of power, due to air leakage. 

Moisture which condenses and collects in air pipe lines, causes 
'water hammer', tends to leaky joints, often reduces the air 
passages and causes loss of power by accumulating at low points. 

The exhaust air from these pneumatic devices expands, caus- 
ing low exhaust temperature. If moisture is present in the air, 
it is apt to freeze and clog the exhaust and create an interference 
with efficient operation. 

The way to guard against these evils is by the removal of the 
moisture from the compressed air before it enters the distribution 
system. 

Figs. 44 and 45 show various types of aftercoolers of both the 
horizontal and vertical construction. See Table XIX. 

Air Receivers and Moisture Traps. The air compressor 
discharge is pulsating in character and as a steady flow of com- 
pressed air to the pipe line is highly desirable it is usual to employ 
a large tank or so-termed 'air receiver' for storing the air and 
equalizing the flow. See Fig. 46. 

69 



70 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



The larger the air receiver the greater will be its storage 
capacity and the smoother will be the air flow. This is especially 
useful in work of an intermittent character. It makes the prob- 
lem of regulation easier and assists the governor or regulator of 
the compressor in maintaining a steady pressure. 




Fig. 44 — A horizontal air aftercooler. 



Air receivers are built both vertical and horizontal; preference 

should, however, be given to the vertical type on the grounds of 

economy in floor space. See Table XX. 

The air receiver should be placed as close to the compressor 

(or aftercooler when used) as possible and pipe amply large used 

for connecting it up. It is custom- 
ary and good practice to make this 
pipe larger than that leaving the 
receiver. The use of elbows be- 
tween the compressor and receiver 
should be avoided; any bends 
necessary should be made by giving 
the pipe a wide sweep. 

A gate valve should never be used 
between the compressor and the re- 
ceiver. If one is used a safety valve 
must be interposed in the line be- 
tween the compressor and this 
valve. 

The receiver should have a safety 
or relief valve and where receiver 
is installed out-of-doors, the relief 
valve should be piped back into the 
compressor room to avoid freezing. 
The air receiver also acts partially as a cooler and moisture 

trap. Placing it out-of-doors will give greater cooling effect, 




Fig. 45 — A vertical air aftercooler. 



COMPRESSOR ACCESSORIES 



71 



resulting in greater condensation of moisture and therefore drier 
air in the transmission lines. 

Provision is made for draining moisture by a drain-cock placed 
at the lowest point in the receiver. It should be opened at fre- 
quent intervals to expel the accumulated water. 




Fig. 46 — A typical air receiver. 

It is good practice to pipe the receiver, with the inlet at the top 
and the outlet at the lower end, a sufficient height above the 
bottom to avoid the accumulated moisture. 

Moisture Traps. On long pipe lines it is advisable to install 
small receivers or moisture traps at low points in the line, with 
the condition of piping reversed, namely, the entry at the bottom 
and exit at the top. These traps will catch the moisture con- 
densed in the line, permitting its withdrawal at frequent intervals 
through drain-cocks. 



72 COMPRESSEDAIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 

Air Reheaters. Where the air is to be transmitted long dis- 
tances and used out-of-doors the use of an efficient air reheater is 
highly desirable. 

It will not only reduce the element of annoyance caused by 
freezing but will increase the working capacity of the air, as 



Fig. 47 — A typical air reheater. 

the air in being reheated to a temperature of 250 degrees Fah- 
renheit (which is usual with reheaters) is expanded in volume 
from 30 to 35 per cent. 

The reheater should be placed as close as possible to the point 
of use of the air, to prevent loss due to radiation of heat after the 
air has passed through the reheater. 

The construction of the air reheater is very simple, consisting 
of a cast body containing a fire box below and a coil of pipe above 



COMPRESSOR ACCESSORIES 



73 



through which the air passes, the air entering at the bottom and 
leaving at the top. 

Fig. 47 shows a typical Air Reheater. See Table XXI. 

Protective Devices. The sources of danger from compressed 
air equipment are few and easily guarded against: First, running 
away of the compressor; Second, obstruction of the air lines 
causing the development of pressures beyond a point for which 
the equipment was built; Third, abnormal rise in air temperature. 

The first is usually provided for by the governing and regulat- 
ing devices furnished on the compressor itself; the second by the 






Fig. 48 — Views showing how the fusible plug is applied 
to an air cylinder and air receiver. 



employment of pop safety valves placed in the receiver and 
transmission lines, and set for a predetermined pressure. When 
the pressure exceeds that provided for, the pop valves automati- 
cally blow off releasing the excess pressure until the trouble has 
been remedied. 

The third, abnormal rise in temperature, may result from 
several causes, such as insufficient lubrication, interruption of 
the cooling process, sticking of the valves, etc. If allowed to 
persist explosions may result or parts may be strained to such 
an extent as to become unsafe or permit heavy leakage losses. 

It is well known that lubricating oils if subjected to high enough 
temperature will either catch fire and burn, or will produce gases 
of a highly explosive character. 



74 COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 

To provide against this latter condition it is highly desirable 
that safety devices, such as the fusible plug, described herewith, 
be employed at every point of possible danger throughout the 
plant. See Fig. 48. Its installation is recommended on the air- 
compressing cylinders at the point of discharge, in the air receiver 
and at intervals in the transmission lines. 

The fusible plug shown consists of a body formed for readily 
screwing into a hole, tapped for X _mcn pip e thread, in the wall 
of the apparatus to be protected. This body carries a fusible 
stem or plug and is covered by a cap having holes open to the 
atmosphere. 

Upon a rise of temperature to a point for which the safety 
element is set, it melts, opening a passage to the cap and creating 
a distinctive whistle which persists until the trouble is remedied. 
It is then but a moment's work to replace the fusible element and 
the machine is again properly safe-guarded against recurring 
danger. 

The plug illustrated is supplied in two sizes, 350-degree and 
500-degree blowing points. 

The 350-degree plug is suitable for use with a single-stage com- 
pressor working at pressures up to 40-pounds gauge and in two- 
stage compressors, working at 100-pounds gauge pressure, or in 
the discharge side of a three- or four-stage compressor delivering 
air at 1,000-pounds gauge pressure. 

The 500-degree plug is for use in the discharge line of a 
single-stage compressor working at 100-pounds gauge pressure. 



COMPRESSOR ACCESSORIES 



75 





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COMPRESSOR ACCESSORIES 



77 



TABLE XX 

AIR RECEIVERS AND MOISTURE TRAPS 

For Standard Working Pressures 



Num- 
ber 
of 
Size 







Con- 


Thick- 


Thick- 




Diam. 


Diam. 


Diam. 


L. 


tents 


ness of 


ness of 


Weight 


of 


of 


in 


in 


Cu. Ft. 


Shell 


Heads 


Lbs. 


Safety 


Inlet 


Ins. 


Ft. 


(about) 


Inches 


Inches 


(about) 


Valve 
Ins. 


& Dis. 
V's Ins. 



COMPRESSOR CAPA- 
CITY RECEIVER IS 
BEST ADAPTED FOR 
IN CUBIC FEET 
FREE AIR PER 
MINUTE 



For Working Pressure up to no Pounds 






18 


6 


10 


3/16 


5/16 


350 




2X 


90 


00 


24 


6 


18 


7/32 


5/16 


575 


iX 


2X 


120 


I 


30 


6 


29 


X 


3/8 


950 


iK 


3 


150 


2 


36 


6 


42 


% 


3/8 


1,000 


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3X 


150 to 200 


3 


36 


8 


56 


Va 


3/8 


1,350 


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4 


200 to 300 


4 


42 


8 


77 


9/32 


3/8 


1.750 


2 


5 


300 to 500 


5 


42 


10 


96 


9/32 


3/8 


2,000 


2 


6 


500 to 700 


5X 


48 


8 


100 


11/32 


7/16 


2,480 


2X 


6 


500 to 800 


6 


48 


12 


150 


11/32 


7/16 


3.000 


2X 


7 


700 tO 1,200 


7 


54 


12 


190 


3/8 


7/16 


3.300 


2K 


8 


1,200 tO 2,100 


7M 


60 


14 


275 


13/32 


X 


5.500 


2X 


9 


2,000 tO 3,000 


8 


66 


18 


437 


7/16 


9/16 


7,500 


2X 


10 


3,000 and over 


9 


24 


6 


18 


7/32 


5/16 


625 


iX 


4 


(These are only fur- 


10 


36 


6 


42 


X 


3/8 


1,100 


iK 


6 


nished horizontal 


ioK 


48 


8 


100 


11/32 


7/16 


2,200 


2X 


6 


style and are used 
as water traps in 
air lines.) 



The tables of dimensions given in this list refer to either Vertical or Horizontal patterns, 
excepting for sizes Nos. 9, 10, and 10K which are furnished only in Horizontal patterns, and are 
used as water traps in air lines. Vertical Receivers are usually preferred to Horizontal, on 
account of the small amount of floor space that they occupy. 

Sizes o and 00 are suitable for use in machine shops and granite yards, for small air lifts, or 
anywhere in connection with a small air compressor. They are made of the best steel, single 
riveted, and tested to 165 Lbs. water pressure. Fixtures generally include Safety Valve, Pres- 
sure Gauge, Drain Cocks, and tapping for inlet and discharge pipes. 

On Sizes Nos. 1 to 10M inclusive fixtures generally include Manhole, Safety Valve, Pressure 
Gauge, Drain Cocks and from Nos. 4 to 8 inclusive and Nos. 10 and 10K Flanges for inlet and 
discharge pipes. 

When considering the use of Nos. 9 and 10 or 10X for moisture traps, always use Size No. 10 
or 10X with 6-inch connections if air pipe is over 4 inches. 

The sizes given for inlet and discharge openings are MAXIMUM. When necessary, the> 
may be reduced on the smaller sizes by the use of 'reducers' and on Sizes No. 4 and up (which 
have flange connections), by the use of smaller flanges. 



78 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 

TABLE XX {Continued) 
SPECIAL SMALL AIR RECEIVERS 

FOR USE IN GARAGES AND SMALL MACHINE SHOPS WHERE 
COMPRESSORS OF SMALL CAPACITY ARE USED 











Diameter 


Diameter 




Number 


Diameter 


Length 


Contents 


Inlet and 


of 


Weight 


of 






Cu. Ft. 


Discharge 


Safety 


Lbs. 


Size 






(about) 


Openings 
Inches 


Valve 
Inches 


(about) 



For Working Pressure up to iio Lbs. 



01 


12 


3 


2% 


iK 


% 


70 


02 


14 


4 


4 


iK 


*A 


100 


03 


16 


5 


6K 


2K 


X 


175 



For Working Pressure up to 200 Lbs. 



04 


12 


3 


2K 


iK 


X 


100 


OS 


14 


4 


4 


iK 


X 


150 


06 


16 


5 


6K 


2K 


H 


275 



Fixtures generally include Safety Valve, Pressure Gauge and Drain Cocks. 
The sizes given for inlet and discharge openings are maximum. When necessary they may 
be reduced by the use of standard pipe 'reducers'. 

TABLE XXI 
AIR REHEATERS 



Over-all Di- 
mensions, Ins. 


Square 

Feet 
Heating 
Surface 


Inlet 

and 

Outlet 

Diam. 

Ins. 


Capacity in 
Cubic Feet 
of Free Air 
per Minute 
at 80 Lbs. 
Pressure 


Final Tem- 
perature 
Degrees 

Fahrenheit 


Percen- 
tage of 

in- 
crease 

in 
Volume 


Net 


Out- 
side 
Diam. 


Height 


Wgt. 
Lbs. 


17 
42 


31 
56 


7K 
22 


2 

4 


200 
550 


250 
250 


30 
30 


380 
2,980 



The use of Reheaters is recommended in all plants where the air is to be 
transmitted long distances, and used out-of-doors. They are particularly 
essential in cold weather to prevent the freezing of the moisture in the air, 
and the consequent choking of the exhaust ports of the different motors 
operated. They should be located as close to the motors as practicable and 
it is desirable to insulate all hot pipes, to prevent loss of heat by radiation. 

As the air passes through the reheater, and is heated to the usual tem- 
perature of about 250 degrees Fahrenheit, it expands in volume from 30 to 35 
per cent., which increases its working capacity that amount. 



CHAPTER V 

INSTALLATION AND CARE OF COMPRESSORS, 
ACCESSORIES AND PIPE LINES 

Before installing or using an air compressor familiarize your- 
self with the instructions issued by the manufacturer. 

Locating the Air Compressor. If possible locate the com- 
pressor in a clean, light situation with room all around it so that 
it can be readily inspected and kept clean. If the air is taken 
into the cylinder directly from the room, see that there is no 
dust or dirt near the intake where it can be drawn in with the 
air. A small amount of dust constantly passing into the cylinder 
will often cause very rapid wearing of the valves and piston. A 
better arrangement is to run a pipe from the cylinder outside the 
building and up, so as to take in the air some eight or ten feet 
above the ground. The top should be covered and protected by 
a wire screen so that rain or large particles of anything cannot 
be drawn in. 

Be careful to see that there are no exhaust pipes discharging 
steam, water, dust or other waste near the compressor intake, 
so that it can be carried into the machine by the intake suction. 

The longer the intake pipe the larger should be its diameter 
A good rule is to increase it one inch in diameter over the size at 
the compressor for every ten feet in length. Wood is not a good 
material for it unless lined with tin, as cracks soon develop 
through which dust and dirt are free to enter. 

Compressor Foundations. Foundations are preferably built 
of cement although if more convenient brick or stone may be 
used; but whatever the foundation material may be, cement 
mortar should be used. Lime mortar should be avoided, as it 
soon crumbles under the effect of compressor operation. 

While nearly all compressors are built entirely self-contained, 
all machinery has a certain vibration and, as it is the place of the 
foundation to absorb this, it should be made amply large. 

Manufacturers of compressors supply foundation plans giving 
all dimensions and locating all bolt holes, as well as instructions 
for building the foundations, and it is highly advisable to follow 

79 



8o 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



their plans. In giving the following general instructions it is 
assumed that the foundation is being built upon fairly solid 
ground. If the bottom is soft, or otherwise insecure, it is advis- 
able to place beneath the foundation proper a footing course six 
inches to nine inches deep, and a foot or more larger around. 
Remember that the belt or engine is always trying hard to pull 
the compressor over and this pull must be resisted by the 
foundation. 

In Fig. 49 is shown a skeleton sketch for building a typical 
foundation for a straight-line, single-stage air compressor. 

ALLOW BOLTS TO PROJECT %'ABOVE TOP OF NUTS TO PROVIDE 
FOR GROUTING UNDER BEDPLATE. ""- — -L_J_._ 

,2_ * -i-^ft 




80k 
Fig. 49 — Skeleton sketch showing how a compressor foundation should be built. 



The best way to locate the foundation bolts is to build a wooden 
template of boards, somewhat as shown above, and support it in 
position so that the foundation can be built below it. 

The letters 'W\ 'X', *Y\ etc., refer to the dimensions on plans 
supplied with the machine by the manufacturer. 

In building foundations two mistakes are often made. First, 
the bolts are built in solidly, with no allowance for moving them 
to suit slight differences between the hole in the bedplate and 
those in the template; and second, the foundation is built so 
high that the bolts do not project far enough to pass all the way 
through the nut. 

All bolts should have large holes around them so that their 
tops can be moved an inch or so in any direction, and the easiest 
way to accomplish this is to slip over each bolt a square wooden 
box about 2}4 inches inside or a piece of old 2-inch or 2^-inch 
pipe. The wooden box should be withdrawn when foundation is 
finished and to assist in this it can be made tapering, say one 



INSTALLATION AND CARE 01 

inch smaller at the bottom than at top. The iron pipe may be 
left in. In either case, after the compressor is set, the holes 
should be filled with grout or thin cement. 

To insure the proper height of bolts above foundation, blocks 
should be placed upon the top of the template boards to make 
the total thickness of wood equal to the thickness of lug on bed- 
plate, as shown on plan. 

The bolts may be hung from the template and nuts placed on 
top allowing three-quarter inch of bolt to project above the nut. 




5961 

Fig. 50 — Arrow shows direction of rotation for power-driven compressors. 

This will allow for leveling the compressor and grouting it upon 
the foundation. 

When the compressor is in place, level it and line it carefully 
by means of wooden wedges or liners at the four corners, and 
draw the nuts lightly down upon the bolts. 

Build a dam about two inches high around the bedplate and 
pour in sufficient grout to fill all the space between foundation 
and bedplate. This grout should also fill the space around the 
foundation bolts. 

Allow this cement to harden a few days before finally drawing 
the nuts down firmly upon the bolts. 

Belted Compressors. An air compressor, like a steam engine 
Is preferably run so that the pressure of the cross-head shoe will 
be down upon the lower guide, as this prevents any tendency 
to lift, and renders lubrication more efficient. For this reason 
the machine should be run under as shown by arrow in Fig. 50. 



82 COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 

Use a belt half an inch or one inch narrower than the face of 
the belt wheel and do not make it any tighter than necessary to 
prevent slipping. Unnecessary tightening may place a heavy 
load upon the main bearings, causing them to heat and make 
trouble. 

New belts are stiff and do not adhere like an old belt, so that 
trouble is sometimes experienced in starting up a new outfit. A 
good belt dressing will greatly assist in such cases, softening the 
belt and preventing slipping. 

AIR COMPRESSORS 

Steam Piping. The steam piping should drain toward the 
compressor throughout its whole length. This is important, for 
if the pipe contains low spots or pockets, where water could 
accumulate, a sudden increase in the demand for air, with a more 
rapid flow of steam through the pipe, might cause it to carry the 
entrained water with it to the cylinders and do serious damage. 
The use of a steam separator is recommended, particularly if the 
compressor is located at a considerable distance from the boiler. 
This would furnish drier steam to the compressor, increase the 
economy of the machine and be a safeguard against water being 
carried into the cylinders. Place a stop valve where the steam 
pipe branches from the main line. This is for convenience when 
making repairs or repacking or regrinding the throttle valve, and 
may also be used to shut down the compressor in the event of 
an accident to the regular throttle valve. 

A drain should be provided in the steam pipe on the boiler 
side of, and as close as possible to, the compressor throttle. 
The steam pipe should all be covered with some form of non- 
conducting material such as asbestos or mineral wool. 

Upon the completion of the steam piping it should be thor- 
oughly blown out with a good pressure of steam. This should be 
done before making the final connection to the compressor at 
the governor; or, if the piping was begun at the compressor end, 
it should be especially disconnected for the purpose. There is 
usually an accumulation of chips and loose scale in the piping, 
which will be removed by the escape of the steam under pres- 
sure; this insures clean steam chests and cylinders free from 
any grit which would be apt to damage the valves and the seats. 



INSTALLATION AND CARE 83 

Exhaust Piping. Best practice advocates the laying of the 
exhaust piping beneath the floor, running it to the side of the 
compressor room, then vertically to the atmosphere. The hori- 
zontal portion of the exhaust pipe leading to the riser should 
pitch slightly toward it. Its connection to the riser should be 
made with a tee or an elbow with a tapped hole in its heel to 
provide a drain for the condensed steam. If the compressor has 
compound steam cylinders the steam receiver must be properly 
drained; an opening is provided for this purpose at the end of 
the horizontal portion underneath the low-pressure cylinder. 
This should always be opened before starting the compressor, 
and steam turned into the receiver through a by-pass valve. 
The receiver, as well as both the steam cylinders, should be 
thoroughly warmed by steam before starting the compressor. 

If a condenser is used the main exhaust pipe will be connected 
to it, but there should also be an opening to the atmosphere pro 
vided with an automatic relief valve. A stop valve should be 
placed in the exhaust pipe between the condenser and the relief 
valve. All of the exhaust piping should drain toward the 
condenser. 

Steam Cylinder Lubricators. The steam and air cylinders 
are generally lubricated by means of a sight-feed oiler or force 
feed lubricator. 

Where force feed is used the oil is pumped through sight-feed 
glasses and then to the cylinders. Full description and instruc- 
tion sheets generally accompany each lubricator and they should 
be carefully studied and preserved for future reference. 

The proper feed for the steam cylinder is from four to ten 
drops per minute. 

With high steam pressures or superheat, more oil may be 
necessary. Do not allow the valve or piston to run dry. 

Use a good quality of oil and be sure that it is suited to the 
work. The higher the pressure and temperature of the steam, 
the more important the quality of the steam cylinder oil 
becomes. 

Gasket Joints. The front and back steam cylinder heads are 
generally made with a ground joint, no gaskets being used, both 
the heads being scraped and ground on the cylinder to make a 
steam-tight joint. 



84 COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 

The other steam joints around the compressor usually are 
packed with sheet gasket. Any good oil-proof gasket will answer, 
but those of the sheet asbestos type are preferable. 

Starting. Turn the compressor over a couple of times by 
hand to be sure everything is free when ready to start. The 
proper direction of rotation is so that the top of the fly-wheel 
travels toward the steam cylinder, or, as it is commonly called, 
'the engine runs under'. 

Open a valve in the air line so compressor can run without 
building up air pressure in the receiver, or open the two indicator 
cocks in the side of the air cylinder. 

Turn on the circulating water in the air cylinder jacket. 

Open the drain cocks on steam cylinder and drain the steam 
pipe above the throttle valve until it is warmed up, then open 
the throttle a very little and let the steam blow through the steam 
cylinder until it is thoroughly heated up, turning the engine over 
so that the steam blows first through one end, and then through 
the other. 

When well warmed up, give it a little more steam and let it 
run slowly a while, gradually bringing it up to speed. 

Watch the governing devices and satisfy yourself that they 
are operating properly and will control the engine. 

Setting Steam Valves. No instructions can be given on 
this point which will apply to all types of steam valves. 

It is well to note, however, that each manufacturer generally 
sees to it that the steam valves are properly set before the machine 
leaves the factory and under no circumstances should the ad- 
justment be made differently from the marks usually indicated 
on the valve gear. Should it for any reason become necessary 
to tear down the valve gear, study the manufacturer's instruc- 
tion book carefully when reassembling. 

Lubrication. Compressors supplied with automatic splash. or 
bath lubrication system require the filling of the crank case to 
the height usually indicated by the manufacturers. The crank 
case is inclosed and carries a quantity of oil into which the 
crank and connecting rod dip at every revolution. The crank 
is also provided with oil scoops, which, dipping into the oil, 
throw it all over the interior of the case. A portion of it runs 
into oil holes supplying the main bearings. That which works 



INSTALLATION AND CARE 85 

through the bearings to the outside is caught on oil rings and 
drains back to the crank chamber, so that no oil gets on the fly- 
wheels. Some of the oil is caught in a pocket inside the crank 
case and delivered by a pipe to cross-head pin and piston rod. 
Oil is splashed by the cranks direct to the cross-head guides. 

The oil should be replenished from time to time and occasion- 
ally drained off and filtered, or strained through a thick woolen 
cloth, at the same time wiping out the bottom and corners of 
the crank case with kerosene or gasoline to remove any sediment 
that may have settled. A convenient way to ascertain if the 
crank case contains the proper amount of oil is to observe the 
height in the oil pockets below the main bearing. When the 
compressor is not running and all the oil has drained back to its 
level it should stand in the pockets about one-half inch below 
the point at which it would overflow. 

Have regular times for inspecting the height of the oil and 
remember that with the proper amount of oil the lubrication is 
perfect, and all bearings are drenched with oil; if the oil level is 
allowed to fall to where the scoops cannot reach it, all lubrication 
ceases and the bearings will soon be ruined. 

Compressors having oil cup lubrication for the driving element 
should have the cups inspected and filled daily, the flow being 
regulated in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions. 

Air cylinders oiled by means of sight-feed lubricators which 
may be adjusted to feed the requisite amount, will require daily 
attention. The amount of feed varies with the size of the cylin- 
der from one drop in two minutes for a 6 x 6-inch cylinder, to 
two drops per minute for a 20 x 12-inch, etc. A very small 
amount is required, as the oil is not washed out of an air cylinder 
as it is from a steam cylinder. 

The inlet and discharge valves should be removed occasionally 
and cleaned, and by observing them it can be determined whether 
the cylinder is receiving the proper amount of oil. The surfaces 
should show a greasy appearance and not be dry. 

The oil to be used in the crank case can be any good machine 
or engine oil that is of a medium density, such as Atlantic Red 
Engine Oil. 

A special oil must be used in the air cylinder, as the heat of the 
compressed air is very high and decomposes the ordinary ma- 
chine oils, not only forming carbon and sooty deposits on the 



86 COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 

valves and walls but also forming explosive gases which are dan- 
gerous and liable to cause explosions. Follow the manufacturer's 
directions. 

Inspection and Cleaning. Economical and efficient opera- 
tion of compressed air machinery demands regular inspection, 
and the following is an outline of the practice prevailing in the 
majority of plants. 

The compressor should be inspected at least once a month, 
making any necessary adjustments, such as take-up of packing 
glands and replacement of worn parts. Compressed air valves 
are accessibly constructed so that it is a simple matter to inspect 
them, and this should be done at the regular monthly inspection. 
The valves should present an oily surface free from carbon. Any 
carbon deposited should be immediately removed. It is also well 
to examine the ports and passages to see that they are free from 
obstruction. 

Never use kerosene or coal oil in an air cylinder to clean it out. 
This is a very dangerous practice and should be absolutely pro- 
hibited. A good way to clean the cylinder is to fill the lubricator 
occasionally with strong soap suds or soda water, allowing this 
to feed freely. This is very effective. 

The air receiver should be drained of water each day by means 
of the drain-cock usually provided. 

Examine daily the height of the lubricating oil in the crank 
case, oil cup or force pump chamber and replenish if necessary. 
Where adjustable lubricators are used they should be adjusted 
to feed the proper amount of oil. After these preliminary in- 
spections and adjustments are made, the next thing in starting 
up an air compressor is to start the circulating water before 
compressing begins. Valves should be examined, and if worn or 
cut should be reground. Safety valves should be tested by 
raising the pressure to the point of blow-off. Lost motion in pins 
and bearings should be taken up. 

Once a month the crank case oil should be renewed, but before 
renewing, the crank case itself should be thoroughly cleaned 
and all other parts inspected. 

It is advisable to carry on hand a stock of such parts as are 
liable to breakage or which wear out quickly. Inlet and outlet 
valves are the parts most likely to give way and it is advisable 
to carry on hand a complete set for emergency purposes. This 



INSTALLATION AND CARE 



87 



will avoid costly shut-downs while waiting for new ones to come 
from the factory. 

As a matter of economy, it is advisable to inspect pipe lines, 
air hose, shut-off valves, etc. at least once a month for leakage. 
A good way to do this is by the use of a lighted candle placed at 
all connections, for, unlike steam leaks which make themselves 
known by the escaping white vapor, air leaks cannot be seen, 
but can be felt. 

Water Piping. Each air cylinder is provided with water inlet 
and outlet, and drain openings in the water jacket. A controlling 




Fig. 51 — Funnel arrangement on water outlet piping which per- 
mits instant inspection for flow and temperature. 

valve should be placed on the water inlet, and the outlet should 
if possible be open, the water falling into an open pipe end or 
funnel so that it can be seen at a glance whether water is passing 
through the jacket or not. See Fig. 51. 

If desired, the circulating water may be operated in a closed 
circuit, being used for other purposes after passing through the 
compressor. The water pressure in the jacket should never 
exceed fifty pounds per square inch unless specially provided 
for by the manufacturer. 

Be careful to drain the cylinder thoroughly if it is to be 
allowed to stand in a freezing temperature, as water freezing 



88 COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 

in the jacket or heads will certainly crack them sooner or 
later. 

Occasionally remove the back-head and inspect the water 
spaces to see that they are not stopped up with sediment and 
mud. All water spaces in heads and jackets should be kept free 
by washing out as often as found necessary. 

Adjustment of Connecting Rod. It is well to occasionally 
inspect the bearings and connecting rod boxes for possible wear. 
Provision is usually made for take-up. 

Gaskets. In replacing the gaskets between the heads and cyl- 
inder use rubber. Be careful to use the same material as the old 
gasket and have it of a similar thickness. A thicker gasket will 
increase the clearance volume and reduce the capacity of the 
compressor, while a thinner sheet will not allow sufficient clear- 
ance between the heads and piston. Be careful to use a packing 
that is oil-proof, as otherwise the oil and high temperature will 
soon destroy it. 

The Short-Belt Drive. The short-belt drive affords a very 
efficient and convenient method of driving these compressors by 
electric motor. 

As will be seen from the cut on page 12 the motor is placed as 
close to the compressor as possible. In order to obtain a large 
arc of contact on the small motor pulley, a swinging arm is at- 
tached to the bedplate and carries on its outer end an idler pulley 
which rides upon the top of the belt. This automatically takes 
up the slack due to stretching and its pulling power is increased. 

In laying out the foundation, the distance between centers of 
compressor and motor shaft varies, depending on the size of motor 
and motor pulley, and the size of the belt wheel on the compressor. 

Installing Pipe Lines. When installing pipe lines, care 
should be taken to have them of sufficient size, for small trans- 
mission lines mean excessive loss of pressure due to friction. 
Large pipe lines are especially desirable where the pipes are long, 
or the supply has to meet the demand of a great many devices. 
Small pipe lines reduce pressure with a resultant inefficient 
operation of tools. 

Sharp bends or elbows should be avoided. They mean restric- 
tion and friction. 

All joints should be made with red lead, so as to insure tight- 
ness. Provide sufficient outlets — doing so will save money in 



INSTALLATION AND CARE 89 

subsequent remodeling and will do away with the use of un- 
necessarily long air hose. 

Avoid low spots and wherever possible install the pipe line so 
as to drain to suitable traps placed at intervals for the removal 
of moisture. 

Provide a shut-off valve at every outlet and use sufficiently 
large air hose. It is good practice to standardize on one size of 
hose, so that all will interchange. The hose should be of good 
grade, oil- and water-proof and armored. 

Racks should be provided for hanging the hose when not in 
use. Do not permit the hose to lie around on the ground or floor 
to be run over by trucks. 

Workmen should not be permitted to use the air for the per- 
petration of pranks. It is dangerous and has been known to 
result in loss of life. 

Where it is necessary to run air lines out-of-doors it is good 
practice to bury them in concrete conduits to which access may 
be had for occasional inspection. 

It is surprising how rapidly the use of compressed air spreads 
after it has been made available, and it is not uncommon to find 
an air compressor running overloaded due to added uses not 
intended when the air power was first installed. Hence it is 
advisable to provide sufficient reserve capacity when selecting 
the air compressor. 

The advisability of selecting an air compressor with reserve 
capacity is emphasized by the statement recently made by an 
experienced factory manager. He said, "Once compressed air 
is installed, it simplifies and accelerates many operations to 
such an extent, and there is such a marked improvement in shop 
practise that the number of applications multiply rapidly." 

Not only is it advisable to provide ample compressor capacity, 
but pipe lines should be installed of a size sufficiently large to 
provide for future growth. The necessity for this can be readily 
appreciated from the following example: the loss in pressure 
in transmitting 50 cubic feet of free air per minute at 100 
pounds pressure through 1,000 feet of i-inch pipe is 11.89 
pounds and only .27 pounds in transmitting the same volume of 
air through a 2-inch pipe. 

When an installation is made and starts with a small diameter 
transmission line, perhaps fully capable of taking care of imme- 



90 COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 

diate requirements, and then the demand increases for air power, 
one of two things must be done : either the first line must be 
torn out and a larger one installed, or another line must be added. 
It is obvious that in the first case expense occurs which could 
have been avoided, and in the second case the loss of transmis- 
sion is multiplied by two. Both can be avoided by installing a 
line of sufficient size in the first place at but a slight increase in 
cost of material. 

As already indicated, the advantages of using air are many. 
It is not only cheap; it is reliable and flexible, and it is peculiarly 
adapted to portable work. It requires no insulation. Unlike 
steam, it may be transmitted over long distances without serious 
loss of power, nor are there any lurking dangers from exposed 
portable power lines, as in the case of electric transmission. The 
equipment is simple to install and is readily understood by the 
layman. 



CHAPTER VI 
PORTABLE PNEUMATIC TOOLS 

In the metal industry it is not always possible to take the 
work to the tool, and when possible, not always convenient to 
complete all operations while the work is at the tool. This has 
resulted in the call for power tools of various kinds which are 
easily transportable to the work, to replace slow and irksome 
manual operations, and the rapidity with which the number of 
these tools has multiplied is the best evidence of their need. 

This is especially true where work of a bulky nature is handled, 
such as boilers, structural steel forms, etc., and also out on the 
assembly floor where machines of great mass are put together and 
their movement is not to be thought of until the dismantling for 
shipment takes place. Then there are the repair shops for the 
work of repairing permanent machine installations, which present 
very similar problems. 

This field of endeavor has fallen naturally to the pneumatically 
operated device, because of the ready adaptability of compressed 
air power, its availability, absence of danger, and the further 
fact that pneumatic tools embody within smaller confines greater 
range and power of action. The ruggedness of construction, sim- 
plicity and ready ' understandability ' by all classes of labor are 
points in favor of pneumatic tools which cannot be claimed for 
portable tools, employing other kinds of power. 

Their uses are many and varied in all divisions of the modern 
manufacturing plant. 

In their adaptation they may be divided about as follows: 

Power Plant Machine Shop 

Hoists Metal Drills 

Drills Close-Quarter Drills 

Riveters Wood-Borers 

Chippers Reamers 

Calkers Grinders 

Scalers Buffers 

Flue Rollers Chippers 

Flue Cleaners Calkers 

Tube Cutters Tapping Machines 

Stay Bolt Cutters Bolt, Stud and Screw Seaters 

Flue Expanders Die Sinkers 

Hoists 
91 



92 COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 

Foundry Boiler Shop and Structural Steel 

Sand Rammers Riveters 

Chipping Hammers Chippers 

Hoists Metal Drills 

Grinders Reamers 

Lifts Calkers 

Jib Crane Motors Scalers 

Molding Machines Flue Rollers 

Pattern Vibrators Tube Cutters 

Jarring Machines Rivet Busters 

Jolt-Ramming Machines Hoists 

Sand Blasters Stay Bolt Cutters 

Sand Sifters Flue Expanders 

Holder-Ons 

For * e Sh0 ^ Close-Quarter Drills 

Forging Hammers Stay Bolt Riveters 

Bull Dozers Jam Riveters 

Bending Presses Yoke Riveters 
Hoists 
Forming Presses 

Hoists. Hoists which find their application most general are 
of four distinct types: Portable Vertical Cylinder Direct-Lift 
hoists, as shown in Fig. 52 ; Stationary Horizontal Cylinder Di- 
rect-Lift type, shown in Fig. 53; Portable Geared Motor type, 
shown in Fig. 54, and Stationary Motor type, shown in Fig. 55. 

The first and third always retain portability, the second and 
fourth types only when installed on traveling or jib cranes, 
which limit their range of field. 

The Vertical Cylinder Direct-Lift type finds its application 
principally for work of a known height of lift, this lift being lim- 
ited by the length of travel of the piston in its cylinder. They 
are built both single- and double-acting. The single-acting hoist 
is used for the more ordinary hoisting, such as warehouse and 
yard work, while the double-acting type, being air balanced and 
more easily controlled, is used for the more delicate classes of 
hoisting. See Table XXIV. 

The vertical type of direct-lift hoist is also applied to short 
elevator lifts such as that shown in Fig. 56. In this type the 
hoist is placed directly over the elevator head-frame. Where 
longer lifts are required it is generally installed as shown in Fig. 
57, employing a series of multiplying sheaves and rope. 

The Horizontal Cylinder Direct-Lift type also finds its appli- 
cation principally for work of a known height of lift, and is com- 



PORTABLE PNEUMATIC TOOLS 



93 




monly used in conjunction with tra- 
veling cranes, as shown in Fig. 58. 
See Table XXV. 

The Geared Motor type of hoist is 
adapted for work requiring lifts of 
varying heights. It is built in a range 
of sizes up to 10,000 pounds capacity 
and lifts up to 100 feet. It is some- 
what more sensitive to operation and 
control than the direct-lift type. Its 
design embodies a three-cylinder mo- 
tor geared to a hoisting drum, which 
carries the rope with its hook block. 
Its control is from the ground by 
chain pulls, which operate the self- 
centering reversing valve that auto- 
matically returns to closed position 
upon the chains being released. See 
Table XXII. 

Due to the greater height of lift 
afforded this type of hoist finds a 
more general adaptation. It may be 
used either hooked to an overhead 
beam or in conjunction with a traveler on an arm or on a tra- 
veling crane. It requires less headroom than the direct-lift type. 



Fig. 52 — Portable Vertical 
Cylinder Hoist. 




Fig- 53 — Stationary Horizontal Cylinder Hoist. 



94 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 




Fig. 54 — Portable Geared Motor Hoist. 

The Stationary Motor type of hoist is intended for 'power- 
izing' small tools, jib cranes, winches, small lines of shafting, and 
for operating such tools as emery grinders, buffing and polishing 
wheels, fans, etc. 

It consists of a motor of similar type to the portable geared 
motor hoist, driving a shaft, carrying at its exposed end a belt 
wheel. 

It is built in several sizes. See Table XXIII. 




Fig. 55 — Stationary Motor Type of Hoist. 



PORTABLE PNEUMATIC TOOLS 



95 



Few realize how comparatively inexpensive it is to install and 
operate such types of air hoists, or the convenience of their use, 
let alone the marked economy which theyaffect over hand-lifting. 
The table of costs shown on page 250 is a revelation in this 
respect. 

Pneumatic Drills. The portable pneumatic drill may be di- 
vided into four general types: the reversible drill, Fig. 59; the 

non-reversible drill, Fig. 
60; the wood-borer, Fig. 
61 ; and the close-quarter 
drill, Fig. 62. The several 
types may also be given 
certain other minor divi- 
sions according to the use 
to which they are put; dril- 





Fig. 56 — Vertical Cylinder Hoist 
applied to short elevator lift. 



Fig 57 — Vertical Cylinder 
Hoist applied to elevator 
lift of considerable height. 



ling, boring, reaming, tapping, flue rolling and seating studs, 
bolts and screws. 

The difference in each minor division is represented almost 
solely by the type of chuck, and other such minor details as are 
required by the work to be done. 

Both the reversible and non-reversible types are applicable to 
drilling, reaming, tapping, and bolt and screw seating. 

Such work as flue rolling and stud seating is confined entirely 



9 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



to machines of the reversible type. When used for stud or bolt 
seating, special tools, such as that illustrated in Fig. 63, are re- 
quired. 

These drills range in drilling capacity up to 4 inches; reaming 
to 2>2 inches; tapping to 2% inches; flue rolling to 4 inches. 




Fig. 58 — Horizontal Cylinder Hoist used in 
conjunction with traveling crane. 



They are equipped with Morse taper sockets of various standard 
sizes. See Table XXVI and Table XXVII. 

For very light drilling in metal and for drilling tell-tale holes in 
stay bolts, the tool shown in Fig. 64 is manufactured. Tools 




Fig- 59 — Reversible pneumatic drill. 

may be had equipped with either feed screw, spade handle, or 
breast plate. Drilling capacity up to 9/16 inches. 

The wood-borer is distinguished by the use of aluminum cast- 
ings for the sake of lightness and is equipped with spade handle 
and wood chuck, in place of feed screw and Morse taper socket 
furnished with the metal drills. These drills have a wood-boring 
range in the various sizes up to 4 inches. They are all built re- 
versible. 



PORTABLE PNEUMATIC TOOLS 



97 



The close-quarter type of drill is intended for drilling, reaming 
and tapping metal in cramped spaces. Capacity, drilling up to 
3 inches, reaming and tapping to 2 inches. See Table XXVII. 




Fig. 60 — Non-reversible pneumatic drill. 

Grinders. Fig. 65 shows a typical portable grinder. It can be 
used with any size wheel not exceeding 6 inches in diameter, which 
is amply large for the run of portable grinding work. See Table 
XXVII. 

Buffers. Any of the pneumatic drills or the grinder can be 
equipped with buffing wheels to meet various requirements. 





Fig. 61 — Pneumatic wood-boring drill. 



Fig. 62 — Pneumatic 
Close-Quarter Drill. 



9 8 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



Pneumatic Hammers, This class of tool, like the pneumatic 
drill, is distinguished in name largely by the work to be per- 
formed with the added diversion of a change in size or weight. 




Fig. 63 — Special sockets for seating bolts and studs. 



Starting with the Riveting Hammer shown in Fig. 66 we find 
the range covers: Chipping Hammers (Fig. 67), Scaling Hammers 
(Fig. 68), Calking Hammers (Fig. 69), Rivet Busters (Fig. 70). 




Fig. 64 — Pneu- 
matic drill for 
drilling tell-tale 
holes in stay 
bolts. 




Fig. 65 — Portable pneu- 
matic hand grinder. 



PORTABLE PNEUMATIC TOOLS 



99 



All of these hammers could be applied to the work of riveting, 
chipping metal, calking joints, scaling tubes, removing paint and 
rust and bursting rivets by the use of the proper tools. Experi- 
ence, however, dictates the use of a hammer for each class of 
work of a certain weight and rapidity and strength of blow. 

Rivets of any appreciable size 
could not be driven economi- 
cally or satisfactorily with ham- 
mers light enough for the rather 
delicate work of scaling or calk- 




Fig. 66 — Riveting Hammer 
equipped with safety rivet 
set retainer. 




Fig. 67 — Chipping Hammer. 



ing and vice versa a heavy riveting hammer would be out of 
place on delicate work. 

In general design these hammers have features very much in 
common. 

The Riveting Hammers range in weight up to about 25 pounds 
and will drive rivets up to 1% inches in diameter. It is only in 
exceptional cases that riveting work goes beyond this limit. The 



lOO 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



hammers are built with either an inside or outside trigger throttle 
handle to suit individual preference, and may be had with or 
without a safety retainer to prevent the accidental shooting out 
of the rivet set and piston. Rivet sets suitable for driving and 
forming various size rivets and heads are supplied by the makers. 
Fig. 71 shows the shape of a standard rivet set. See Table 
XXVIII. 

The hammers for chipping, calking and scaling are all identical 
in construction. They are distinguished from the riveting ham- 
mers by lower weight, shorter but more rapid 
piston stroke, and the use of a nozzle bushing 
for holding the chiseling, calking or scal- 
ing tool. 

They range in weight up to 14^ pounds 
and are applicable to work of the most deli- 




Fig. 68 — Scaling 
Hammer. 




Fig. 69 — Calking Hammer. 



Fig. 70 — Rivet Buster. 



cate and heaviest nature encountered in metal work. Fig. 72 
illustrates various standard chisel blank shanks and Fig. 73 
various types of chiseling, calking and beading tools. See Table 
XXIX. 

The Rivet Buster is nothing more than a standard riveting 
hammer supplied with a chisel and chisel retainer for cutting off 
rivet heads. See Table XXVIII. For compressor capacity to 
drive a given number of tools see Table XXX. 



PORTABLE PNEUMATIC TOOLS 



IOI 



Riveters of Other Forms. In addition to the pneumatic 
riveting hammer described and illustrated there are various other 
forms intended for riveting work presenting special problems. 

The Jam Riveter. The Jam Riveter shown in Fig. 74 is 
intended for work in close quarters, such as riveting between the 
flanges of beams and columns, work on the inside of boilers, etc. 



Fig. y — Standard Rivet Set. 





<A— .»,,: To. -V 



F i g . 7 2 — Standard 
Chisel blanks. 



Fig. 73 — Standard chisel, 
calking and beading tools. 



It has a very short over-all length and is provided with a 
pneumatic feed and a fulcrum point enabling it to brace itself 
between its work and some nearby point. When desired the 
fulcrum point can be removed and a pipe screwed in, lengthening 
the riveter so that it will brace between points of greater length 
than the regularly equipped tool. 

It is built in sizes for handling rivets up to 1 1 /8 inches diam- 
eter. Its weight is around 32 pounds. See Table XXVIII. 

The Yoke Riveter. The Yoke type of Riveter, such as illus- 
trated in Fig. 75, is intended for fabricating indoors the heavier 



102 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



classes of riveting in boiler, tank and shipbuilding and structural 
iron and steel construction. 

The particular type illustrated is known as the Pneumatic 
Compression Yoke Riveter, employing a pneumatic cylinder for 
transmitting power to the squeezing or riveting head through the 

medium of a combined toggle and lever 
joint. They are built both stationary 
and portable, the latter being most 
generally used. 

This type of riveter operates on 
somewhat the same principle as the 
Hydraulic Yoke Riveter but it is 
claimed for it about one-third the cost 
for power. 

Unlike the Pneumatic Riveting Ham- 
mer, which drives up the rivet by a 
number of light blows, the Yoke Riveter operates with one de- 
cidedly heavy squeezing blow. 

The Yoke type of Riveter is manufactured in several distinct 
classes, distinguished by the work to be performed : 
Boiler Plate Riveting, 
Structural Riveting, 
Boiler Door Ring Riveting, and 
Lattice Framework. 




Fig. 74 — Jam Riveter. 




Fig. 75 — Yoke Riveter. 



PORTABLE PNEUMATIC TOOLS 



103 



The Yoke type of Riveter is also supplied for combination 
punching and riveting work. See Table XXXI and Table 
XXXII. See Table XXXIII for air consumption data. 

The Pneumatic Holder-on. Fig. 76: This is a pneumatic- 
ally cushioned tool for backing up rivets and in a large variety 
of work takes the place of the ordinary dolly bar and numerous 




Fig. 76 — Pneumatic Holder-On. 




Fig. 77 — Floor Sand Rammer. 




Fig. 78 — Bench Sand Rammer. 

other makeshifts to be seen in use on riveting work. It not only 
relieves the helper of the vibration but also enables rivets to be 
driven more strongly and without mutilation. 

It is built with a fulcrum point, similar to the Jam Riveter, 
which may be removed and a pipe inserted so as to lengthen it. 
Weight 26 lbs. See Table XXVIII. 

Sand Rammers. This device for ramming sand molds in foun- 
dry work is supplied by manufacturers in two distinct types, the 




Fig. 79 — Butts and peins for sand ramming. 



104 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 




5 "j e i 



Fig. 80 — Die Sinkers and Pattern Carvers. 



Floor Rammer (See Fig. 77) for working on large molds on the 
floor, and the Bench Rammer (See Fig. 78) for small molds made 
up on benches. 

The work of both is alike and aside from their difference in 
length they are similar in construction. The Bench Rammer is 
in addition employed in core work. 

They operate on the reciprocating principle and strike up to 800 
blows per minute. The force and number of the blows are regu- 
lated at will by the operator in his manipulation of the throttle. 

Both round butts and square peins of various sizes are fur- 
nished, which are quickly attached to the projecting recipro- 
cating piston rods. See Fig. 79. Various sizes are furnished and 
the weight of the tool ranges up to about 25 pounds. 

See Table XXXIV. 

Die Sinkers and Pattern Carvers. See Fig. 80. 

The device for this class of work is not unlike the pneumatic 
stone carving hammer employed by stone cutters, being, how- 
ever, equipped with tools suited to each class of work. 

They are comparatively light in weight, ranging from i}£ to 
10 pounds to cover a variety of work from the most delicate 
tracing to the heaviest cutting. See Table XXXV. 



PORTABLE PNEUMATIC TOOLS 



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COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



TABLE XXIII 
STATIONARY AIR MOTORS 





H. P. 

80 
Lbs. 


Speed 
R. P. 

M. 

80 

Lbs. 


Cu.Ft. 

Free 

Air 

per 

Min. 
80 Lbs. 


Wgt. 
Lbs. 


DIMENSIONS, INCHES 


Size 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 


F 


G 


4 

10 


2 

3K 


750 

' 750 


45 
80 


129 
230 


22^ 
21% 


13H 
17 


12H 
16 


8 
12 


3 
4 


sy 
\oy 2 


sy 
10K 




CJO 



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PORTABLE PNEUMATIC TOOLS 



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o o 




'/) 


o 


■* 


o 


oo 


1^- 


r^ 


N tN N 


SO 


iO X 




























< J 




>— i 


CN 


(N 


CO 


Tf 


iO X i-i 


1+ 


X Cn) 


















M 


1-1 


►H CS 




45 en 

a o 

c DC c 




n- 


lO 


'O 


t^ 


X' 


ON 


O CnI tJ- VO 


x o 


















l-l 1-4 HI 


1— 1 


i-i <N 
























< 


SSBJ 


a 






uaij-}sir) 





PORTABLE PNEUMATIC TOOLS 



I09 



TABLE XXVI 
PNEUMATIC DRILLS— REVERSIBLE TYPE 



9 
10 
1 1 
12 



O. 3 
4) cB 1 ^ 

&^ 

«»» ; 

CO — ! 
41 O 

> o 

< 



325 
250 
200 

ISO 



375 
375 
325 
325 
500 
500 
200 



70 



42 
44 
42 
44 
23 
-'4 
2 5 



4> 41 



4K 
4M 
4K 
4K 
3K 
3K 
ZX 



•a « 

I-, 


en 

C 


o5 

s 


be 


5Q 
11 

N 


be 

c 

3 


be 

c 

"a 
a 


3- 

4>" H 

3 


41 


a 


b 




Pi 


H 






iH 


iK 


2K 




iK 


i# 


3 




2 


2 


3H 




2K 


2M 


4 



33 4> 

t3 m q 
-w j_> 1— 1 

II 



2 

2X 

3 



Extra heavy reaming, 

tapping, and flue 

rolling 



I 


1 


2K 


I 


1 


2X 


I 


1 


2^ 


iK 


iK 


3 


X 


X 




H 


X 




1 


1 





29/32 

29/32 

iK 



bo 413 
rti /-\ ^^ 



-5/8 

■s/8 
-s/8 



-3/8 

■7/8 
-7/8 
■7/8 
-3/8 

-3/4 



H 






4) 






CO w 


v • 


41.3 

to< 


4) 


c 


CJ 41 


O 




3fe 


£ 




u 


4 


X 


55 


4 


X 


55 


4 


X 


55 


4 


X 


55 


5 


X 


55 


3 


X 


5o 


4 


X 


5o 


3 


X 


50 


4 


X 


50 


2 


M 


30 


3 


^ 


30 


3 


K 


30 



GT3 

2x 



(J 



4-3/8 
4-3/8 
4-3/8 
4-3/8 

4-3/8 

3-5/8 
3-5/8 
3-5/8 
3-5/8 

3 
3 
3 











WOOD BORING MACHINES 










13 


450 


33 




4 










I7-K, 




K 


50 


3-5/8 


14 J 


700 
400 


20 




2 










15-3/4 




y 2 


30 


3 


13 { 


to 
900 


14 




1 








• 


1 5-9 A 6 




3/8 


17 


2 



TABLE XXVII 
PNEUMATIC DRILLS— NON-REVERSIBLE TYPE 





•0 






















41 

S 

3 


Average Free Spee 

90 Lbs. Pressure 

R.P.M. 


Xi 

bp 

"5 


•s a 

C 41 
41 4) 


m 

C 
1—4 

be 

c 

a 

4> 


»5 

c 

bO 

a 

'0, 

a 


Std. 
Twist Drill 
Will Drive 


7j 1-i 

be ^s 

4><3 


m 41 41 

3 03 y 


CO 

e 

41 

CO 

O 

X 


4-> 

« u 
41.3 

to< 

U 4> 

3 2! 

a* 


Distance from 

Side to Center 

of Spindle 


iA 


325 


57 


5 


iK 


iK 


i# 


14-5 8 


4 


X 


55 


4-3/8 


2A 


250 


57 


5 


iX 


1^ 


2 


14-5/8 


4 


X 


55 


4-3/8 


3A 


200 


57 


5 


2 


2 


2X 


14-5/8 


4 


X 


55 


4-3/8 


4 A 


150 


57 


5 


2K 


2M 


3 


U-5/8 


4 


X 


55 


4-3/8 




Ext 


ra heavy drill- 




5A 


100 


70 


5 


ing 


reaming and 


18 


5 


X 


55 


4-3-8 




375 


42 


4K 




tapping 


13-3/8 


3 


X 


50 




6A 


1 


1 


iX 


3-5/8 


7 A 


375 


44 


4^ 


1 


1 


iK 


14-7/8 


4 


X 


50 


3-5 /8 


8 A 


325 


44 


4 l A 


1 


1 


iK 


13-3/8 


3 


X 


50 


3-5/8 


QA 


325 


44 


\% 


iK 


i# 


iK 


14-7/8 


4 


X 


50 


3-5/8 


10A 


500 


23 


3X 


X 


X 


29/32 


n-3/8 


2 


y 


30 


3 


11A 


500 


24 


?>x 


X 


X 


29/32 


12 


3 


y 


30 


3 


12A 


200 
400 


25 


3X 


1 


I 


9/16 


12-3/4 
13-3/8 


3 


y 
3/8 


30 


3 


16 • 


to 


14 


2y 2 






I 


17 


3 




900 






















17 • 


1,400 

to 
3.000 


10 








1 5 / 16 1 

{ chuck J 


15-1/2 




3/8 


17 


2-7/8 m 



CLOSE-QUARTER DRILL 



[8 



140 



37 



<.iy 



35 



[-5/16 



19 



3,000 



GRINDER AND BUFFER 
20-3/8 



3-i/4 



no 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



CD 



> 

X 
X 






W 

> 
i— i 



Distance 

from 

Side to 

Center of 

Rivet Set 






h-l 


Length 

Open 

Ins. 




CO lO 

1-1 t-t 


ON 
M 


Length 

Closed 

Ins. 




f\ H 

O n 


M 


Air Con- 
sumption 
Cu. Ft. 
Free Air 
Per Min. 


0\ O h ro cO 

>-i w n cn o« 


to to 

CO CO 


; 


Rivet 

Set 
Shanks 


I .217 

inches 

diam. by 

2y inches 

long 


1.748 

inches 

diam. by 

1 inch long 




Size 
Hose 
Recom- 
mended 
Ins. 


\P» \N \N \N \P» 




X 


Size 
Hose 
Connec- 
tion 
Ins. 


\* \+ \* \f \* 




SflO 


Weight 

(Without 

Set) 

Lbs. 


rj- Q\ t-H CO CO 
>-* i-t CS 0* »N 


O c< 

CO CO 




Length 

of Std. 

Piston 

Ins. 


<N <N CO CO ■<*■ 


<N CO 


: 


Length 
(Exclus- 
ive of 
Set) 
Ins. 


\n \« \n \w \w 

»h\ H*\ M\ W\ M\ 

tj- lO N 0> On 

t-i HH M l-H HH 


iHllP 

iH[H 

f* 

H-l H-l 


00 


Piston 

Diam. 

Ins. 


Jto J* _.|<o J<e ml-* 
Hh h |h *\m IiH h|<o 


Vf V*- 




Piston 

Stroke 

Ins. 


^ lOvO 00 00 


t^- lO 




Size 
No. 


00000 

tJ- to vo 00 On 
# ft # * * 


No. 

Jam 

Riveter 

No. 1 

Jam 

Riveter 


No. 4 

Holder 

On 



PORTABLE PNEUMATIC TOOLS 



III 



TABLE XXIX 
CHIPPING, CALKING AND SCALING HAMMERS 



CHIPPING AND CALKING HAMMERS 


SCALING HAMMERS 


Size 

No. 


Weight 
Lbs. 


Cu. Ft. 

Free Air 

Per Min. 

at 80 Lbs. 

Pressure 


Piston 

Stroke 

Ins. 


Length 

Over All 

Ins. 


Weight 
Lbs. 


Cu. Ft. 

Free Air 

Per Min. 

at 80 Lbs. 

Pressure 


Length 

Over All 

Ins. 


i 

2 

3 

4 

5 


12}4 

l*X 

13 

I3K 

14K 


21 
22 

23 
24 

25 


1 
2 
3 
4 
4 


\2% 
I3X 
I4K 
H^8 


6J4 
6X 


7 
io>4 


10K 
10% 



Suitable For 
Chipping and Calking Bath Tubs and 
Range Boilers and other Light work. 
Light Chipping and Calking, Beading 
Flues and Scaling Castings. 
General Chipping and Calking. 
Heavy Chipping and Calking. 
Extra Heavy Chipping and Calking. 



Suitable For 
Very Light Chipping or Calk- 
ing; Scaling paint or rust on 
iron; for Heavy Cutting or 
roughing on Stone. 



112 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



TABLE XXX 

COMPRESSOR CAPACITY FOR OPERATING PNEUMATIC 

HAMMERS 



Ins. 


NUMBER OF HAMMERS IN USE 


I 


5 


10 


15 


20 


25 


30 


35 


40 


45 


50 


I 

2 

3 
4 
5 
6 
8 
9 


14- 

17- 

20. 

22. 

25- 

33- 
36. 
38. 


68.6 

83-3 

98. 
107.8 
122.5 
161. 8 
176.4 
186.2 


134-4 
163.2 
192. 

211 .2 

24O. 

316.8 

345-6 
364.8 


197 

239 
282 
310 
352 
465 
507 
535 


7 

7 

5 
3 
6 

8 


257-6 

312.8 

368. 

404.8 

460. 

607.2 

662.4 

699.2 


315 
382 

450 

495 
562 

742 
810 

855 


5 

5 
5 


369.6 

448. 
528. 
580.8 
660. 

871.2 

950.4 
1003.2 


421.4 

5". 7 

602. 

662.2 

752.5 

993-3 

1083.6 

1143.8 


470.4 

571.2 

672. 

739-2 

840. 

1 108. 8 

1209.6 

1276.8 


516.6 

627.3 

738. 

811. 8 

922.5 

1217.7 

1328.4 

1402.2 


560 

680 

800 

880 

1000 

1320 

1440 

1520 



This Table gives the actual compressor capacity in cubic feet of free air 
DELIVERED (not piston displacement), required to operate from one to 
fifty pneumatic hammers of the size stated, in simultaneous operation under 
ordinary intermittent service. Compressor piston displacement correspond- 
ing can be figured by dividing these figures by the percentage of volumetric 
efficiency given for the compressor. 

The tables are figured at a working air pressure of 80 pounds gauge at the 
tool, and at sea level. 

The ratings for one hammer are the actual readings under water displace- 
ment meter test — the only absolutely accurate way of measuring pneumatic 
tool air consumption. 



PORTABLE PNEUMATIC TOOLS II3 

TABLE XXXI 

YOKE RIVETERS 

For 20 Tons on Rivet at 100 Lbs. Air Pressure, 8>£-in. Cylinder 
Capacity, ^2-in. Structural Rivets 



Reach 
Ins. 


Gap 
Ins. 


Style 


Weight 


6 
6 


6 
3 


Special Lattice Frame Riveter 
Compression Lever Riveter 


800 

75° 



For 30 Tons on Rivet at 100 Lbs. Air Pressure, ioj^-in. Cylinder 
Capacity, 3^-in. Structural, yi-'xn. Steam Rivets 



Reach 


Gap 


Style 


Weight 


Ins. 


Ins. 






15 


12 


Special Lattice Prune Riveter 


1, Coo 


12 


12 


Structural Riveter 


1,400 


12 


15 


« u 


i,475 


18 


12 


« u 


1,700 


18 


15 


a a 


1,750 


18 


18 


« u 


1,800 


24 


12 


a « 


1,900 


24 


15 


a u 


2,000 


24 


18 


11 a 


2,100 


36 


12 


u u 


2,400 


36 


15 


a « 


2,500 


36 


18 


« u 


2,690 


75 


18 


Boiler Riveter, Rd. Stake, Plunger Central 


6,500 


75 


18 


" " " " Flush Top 


6,800 



114 COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 

TABLE XXXI {Continued) 

For 50 Tons on Rivet at 100 Lbs. Air Pressure, 12%-in. Cylinder 
Capacity, %-in. Structural, 2^-in. Steam Rivets 



Reach 


Gap 


Style 


Weight 


Ins. 


Ins. 






31 


6 


Alligator Riveter 


4,300 


15 


12 


Special Lattice Frame Riveter 


2,000 


12 


12 


Structural Riveter 


1,700 


12 


15 


« « 


1,750 


18 


12 


a « 


2,000 


18 


15 


a << 


2,100 


18 


18 


ft ft 


2,200 


24 


12 


« ft 


2,400 


24 


15 


ft ft 


2,500 


24 


18 


« « 


2,600 


36 


15 


» « 


3,300 


36 


18 


ft ft 


3,40o 


48 


15 


ft « 


4,5oo 


48 


18 


« ft 


4,600 


102 


18 


Boiler Riveters, Rd. Stake, Plunger Central 


15,000 


102 


18 


" " " " Flush Top 


16,000 


4 


12 


Door Ring Riveter 


2,000 


12 


12 


Compression Lever Riveter 


2,000 



PORTABLE PNEUMATIC TOOLS II5 

TABLE XXXI (Continued) 

For 70 Tons on Rivet at 100 Lbs. Air Pressure, 15-in. Cylinder 
Capacity, i-in. Structural, 7/8-in. Steam Rivets 



Reach 


Gap 


Style 


Weight 


Ins. 


Ins. 






12 


12 


Structural Riveter 


2,400 


12 


15 


« « 


2,475 


12 


18 


« « 


2,550 


18 


12 


« « 


2,800 


18 


15 


« it 


2,900 


18 


18 


it 11 


3,000 


24 


15 


it « 


3,100 


24 


18 


it it 


3,200 


24 


21 


ti u 


3,300 


24 


24 


a a 


3,400 


36 


15 


it a 


4,200 


36 


18 


a « 


4,300 


36 


21 


« « 


4,400 


36 


24 


« « 


4,500 


48 


18 


<< (( 


6,100 


48 


21 


11 « 


6,250 


48 


24 


» « 


6,400 


60 


18 


a a 


8,200 


60 


21 


u u 


8,350 


60 


24 


a u 


8,500 


75 


18-24 


Boiler Riveter, Rd. Stake, Plunger Central 


■ 13,000 


75 


18-24 


" Flush Top 


14,000 


102 


18-24 


" " ■ " Plunger Central 


19,000 


102 


18-24 


" Flush Top 


20,000 


126 


18-24 


" " " « Plunger Central 


26,750 


126 


18-24 


" Flush Top 


27,700 


168 


18-24 


a it u a u u 


50,000 


16 


8 


Compression Lever Riveter 


3,ooo 



Above 70-Ton Riveters Furnished with 16-in. Cylinder for Exerting 80 Tons 

at 100 Lbs. Air Pressure 
Capacity, i*4-in. Structural, i-in. Steam Rivets 



Il6 COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 

TABLE XXXI {Continued) 

For ioo Tons on Rivet at ioo Lbs. Air Pressure, 18-in. Cylinder 
Capacity, i^-in. Steam Rivets 



Reach 


Gap 


Style 


Weight 


Ins. 


Ins. 






24 


24 


Structural Riveter 


6,500 


48 


24 


a a 


12,000 


60 


24 


a a 


15,000 


75 


24 


a a 


18,000 


126 


24 


u « 


34.500 



Above 100-Ton Riveters Furnished with 20-in. Cylinder for Exerting 125 

Tons at 100 Lbs. Air Pressure 
Capacity, ij^-in. Steam Rivets 



TABLE XXXII 
COMBINATION YOKE PUNCHES AND RIVETERS 



Description 


Press- 


Reach 


Gap 


Wgt. 






sure 


Ins. 


Ins. 


Lbs. 






Tons 










For work in close sections 


20 


6 


3 


835 


See Fig. No. 192 


Punching Channels and Angles 


50 


12 


12 


1,800 


See Fig. No. 191 


Punching Flanges of Heavy 












Angles and Channels 


80 


24 


21 


3,600 


See Fig. No. 191 



PORTABLE RIVET HOLE PUNCH 



Description 



For ^-in. to >£-in. holes in plates up to % in 



Reach 
Ins. 



8 



Weight 
Lbs. 



225 



See Fig. No. 189 



PORTABLE PNEUMATIC TOOLS 

TABLE XXXIII 
YOKE RIVETERS 

APPROXIMATE PRESSURE REQUIRED TO DRIVE COLD RIVETS 

X A in 12 Tons 

5 / 16 " 15 " 

Vs " 22 " 

X " 31 " 

H" 56 - 



117 



APPROXIMATE CONSUMPTION OF FREE AIR PER RIVET FOR THE VARIOUS SIZES 
OF RIVETERS AT 100 POUNDS AIR PRESSURE 

2 to 3^ cu. ft. for the 8>2-in. Cylinder 

it U U « T „i/ « « 

u a a u \2- 1 /% ii " 

u a u u T - u it 

u u u u T /r a u 

a a u u jo a u 

u u u a 2f) a ■ a 

11 u u a 22 " " 



4 




7 


6 


u 


10 


7K 


a 


15 


9K 


u 


16 


20 


a 


35 


24 


a 


45 


30 


u 


55 



Use ^4-in. Supply Hose for 20-ton Riveters 

" 1 " " " " 30- and 50-ton Riveters 

a l y£ a u a a 7Q _ a go _ u u 

" i}4 a " " " 100-ton and larger 



TABLE XXXIV 
SAND RAMMERS 





Bench 
Rammer 


FLOOR RAMMERS 


Description 


Light 


Heavy 


Cylinder Bore 

Piston Stroke 

Weight Unboxed 

Length over all 


1 in. 

4 " 
13 lbs. 
21 in. 


1 in. 

4 " 
15 lbs. 
42 in. 


Ij4 in. 

5 ' 
22 lbs. 
48 in. 



n8 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



TABLE XXXV 
DIE SINKING AND CARVING TOOLS 



Size 


Weight 
Lbs. 


Diameter 

of Piston 

Ins. 


Length 

of Stroke 

Ins. 


Chisel Shank 

Dimensions 

Ins. 


Air Con- 
sumption 
Cu. Ft. 


AA 
AB 
AC 
AD 


i-5 

2-0 

3-9J^ 
5-i ^ 


i 


15 
32 

Vs 

13 
16 
17 
32 


3^X2K 
>^X2^ 
^X2^ 


2 

3 
4 


B 
L 


9-4 

6-12 


i 
i 


1 16 
1 16 


HX2^ 
HX2^ 


12 
12 



CHAPTER VII 
CARE AND OPERATION OF PNEUMATIC TOOLS 

Like other machinery the satisfactory operation of a pneu- 
matic tool is largely dependent upon the amount of attention 
paid to its care. 

Pneumatic tools are high-speed machines and it is therefore 
reasonable to expect that wear will occur in time, especially on 
such parts as pistons, valves, hammers, connecting rods, bearings, 
etc. The rapidity of wear will largely depend upon the attention 
paid to the matter of lubrication, cleaning, etc. 

All manufacturers of pneumatic tools provide for suitably lu- 
bricating the various parts of such machines. Instruction tags 
generally accompany the tools and it is a good plan to study the 
instructions carefully before starting work. 

The oiling and cleaning should not be delayed until the tools 
stop working on account of dirt, rust or gummed oil. 

Oiling. Use only a good, light-body oil. Heavy oils should be 
avoided as they gum up and cause the tool to operate sluggishly, 
resulting in loss of power. 

Such tools as hammers and rammers are generally lubricated 
by oil poured in at the hose connection. There are also sundry 
makes of automatic oilers which can be placed in the hose line or 
short distances from the tool, and which are refilled at any time 
without disconnecting the tool from the hose line. They are 
made in various sizes, one filling of oil lasting from six to eight 
hours. Their use is strongly recommended. 

Such tools as drills, motors and geared hoists are generally 
grease-packed and therefore do not require as frequent attention 
as tools lubricated by fluid oils. A medium weight grease is 
generally employed. 

Cleaning. Pneumatic tools can be cleaned by immersing the 
entire tool in kerosene overnight. When doing this suspend the 
tool so that the dirt and foreign matter will settle to the bottom. 
As kerosene leaves the tool dry it is essential that it be thor- 
oughly oiled before being put into operation. 

119 



120 COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 

As the air taken into the compressor generally contains some 
grit or dust, which finds its way to the tool, it is a good plan to 
occasionally clean the tool by pouring kerosene freely into the 
throttle handle. This will dislodge the foreign matter and cut 
the thick oil which can then be removed by blowing air under 
pressure through the tool. It should then be lubricated in like 
manner with a good quality of light-body oil. 

Where the air is laden with foreign matter the use of strainers 
or filters in the air line is recommended. A good form of home- 
made filter can be made by taking two cast flanges properly 
tapped to fit the pipe line. A piece of gauze or fine mesh wire 
screen is placed between the flanges and the two bolted together. 
Fig. 8 1 illustrates this filter. It can readily be taken apart and 
cleaned. 

Overloadng Tools. It is inadvisable to apply pneumatic 
tools for work beyond the range specified by the manufacturer, 
as this places an overload on the tool, and soon results in wear 
and falling off of power. 

One of the most flagrant abuses to which pneumatic riveting 
hammers are put, is the substitution of pistons of lengths shorter 
than those designed and adopted by the makers as standard. 
The practice should be condemned. The hammer as it leaves the 
manufacturers' hands is a properly balanced tool and propor- 
tioned to meet the requirements of the work for which it is 
recommended. Workmen, however, have discovered that a pis- 
ton shorter than that supplied with the hammer will deliver a 
more powerful blow and for a time it increases the speed at which 
work is turned out. To secure these shorter pistons, the standard 
ones are ground down, thus removing the hardening and leaving 
the striking part softer than it should be. These pistons have a 
tendency to crumble or batter up and cut the cylinder, and if it 
does not result in damage beyond repair, it is only a matter of a 
short time when the cylinder will crack or other damage result. 

It is almost impossible to lay down any hard, fast rules on this 
subject, but attention to the following suggestions will insure 
more and better work and longer life to tools. 

All tools should be cleaned and oiled before being put in oper- 
ation. 

Pipe lines should be blown out before connecting tools. 

Use a good grade of lubricant. 



CARE AND OPERATION 



121 



Use filters or strainers wherever possible. 

Inspect all drills daily and see that all bolts are tight and that 
tools operate freely. 

Inspect all hammers for loose handles and see that they are 
lightened. 

Operators should hold hammers firmly against the work. If 
the die or chisel is permitted to play in and out of the hammer it 
will result in damage to the tool. 




Wire Gauze 



Fig. 8 1 — A readily made filter for the air line. 



CHAPTER VIII 
COMPRESSED AIR USES IN THE POWER PLANT 

In the majority of installations the compressed air power plant 
(the air compressor) is housed with the regular power plant 
equipment in a centrally located power house. 

The power plant engineer soon finds a wide variety of uses for 
this ever-ready power. Not the least of these uses is the cleaning 
of power plant equipment. Generators, engines, pumps, control 
boards, etc., are quickly and thoroughly cleaned by means of the 
compressed air jet. The subject of compressed air for cleaning is 
treated fully in Chapter XV, and will, therefore, not be discussed 
at great length here. 

The flues of fire tube boilers are most easily kept free of soot 
and dirt by blowing them out with compressed air. A pipe, con- 
nected by hose with the air line, is run back and forth in the tube 
and special nozzles are obtainable which give the air a whirling 
motion which is most effective in cutting out the dirt. (Fig. 82.) 
Steam is also used for this purpose but where air is available it is 
decidedly preferable. It pays to use the air jet frequently on 
fire tubes, and also to clean the outside of water tubes occasion- 
ally. The inevitable result is more steam or less coal burned. 

Most waters contain mineral substances which precipitate upon 
the boiler surfaces, reducing the efficiency greatly and perhaps 
endangering the boiler. Hence, the scale should be removed as 
often as circumstances warrant. Very efficient compressed air 
operated boiler tube cleaners are available. They accomplish 
their work rapidly and efficiently. 

Figure 83 shows a few types of scale removers operating di- 
rectly on air pressure. Some types employ a ream-like head, 
while others employ teethed rollers which press against and cut 
the scale, due to the centrifugal effect of the rotating head. 
Others break the scale by a rapid succession of light hammer 
blows, the latter type, with a modified vibrator, also being appli- 
cable for removing scale deposited on the outside of fire tubes. 
Some of these cleaners employ the principle of the rotary engine, 

122 



IN THE POWER PLANT 



123 

Water is run 



while others employ the reciprocating principle, 
into the tubes to wash out the cuttings. 

The plant operating surface condensers or refrigerating units 
finds the scaling hammer, in Fig. 68 on page 100, a handy device 
for scaling condenser tubes. The condensers, which form a very 







*fr— 



Fig. 82 — Nozzles used with compressed air 
for cleaning flues of fire tube boilers. 

important part of the refrigerating machinery, as well as of a 
plant dependent upon a small water supply, necessitating the use 
of the water over and over again, usually consists of a series of 
coils of pipes or nests of pipes through which the hot water or 
steam is forced for cooling. Most waters contain certain impur- 
ities, which, becoming deposited in the pipes, soon reduce the 
available pipe area. This has a decided effect, not only on the 
efficiency of the condensers, but upon the machinery dependent 
on them. 




Fig. 83-A— ' Cyclone ' Water Tube Cleaner with Drill Head 
for removing heavy scale. 



124 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 




Fig. 83-B — 'Cyclone' Water Tube Cleaner working in curved 

boiler tube. 




Fig. 83-C — 'Dean' Boiler Tube Cleaner 
(Water Tube Type). 




Fig. 83-D — 'Dean' Boiler Tube Cleaner operating in a Stirling 
Boiler Tube. 




Fig. 83-E — 'Dean' Boiler Tube Cleaner 
(Fire Tube Type). 



IN THE POWER PLANT 1 25 

The incrustations of these foreign substances must be re- 
moved, and while it can and is in some plants done by rapping 
the pipe with a hammer, it is both a dangerous and expensive 
method. Pipes are apt to be cracked and joints started, while 
the inequality of the blow only partially removes the incrusta- 
tions. 

The pneumatic scaler does the work uniformly and more 
quickly, without harm to the condenser. The blow of the scaler 
is light, rapid and uniform. It requires about one-fourth the 
time of the hand and hammer method. 

Fig. 84 shows one of the special tools employed with the scaler 
for this class of work, and in Fig. 85 is shown how it is used. 




Fig. 84 — Special tool used with pneumatic hammer for scaling 
condenser tubes. 

In making boiler repairs a section of plate can be quickly cut 
out by means of the chipping hammer, shown in Fig. 67, holes 
drilled in the shell to take the patch with the pneumatic drill, 
shown in Fig. 59, and the joints quickly riveted together with a 
pneumatic riveter, as shown in Fig. 66, and the patch is finally 
calked by the substitution of the proper tool in the chipping ham- 
mer. Without air this is a long, laborious hand job, necessitating 
a lengthy shut-down of the boiler unit. 

In like manner, these tools may be employed in making all 
sorts of tank repairs. 

Not infrequently it is desired to tear out an old concrete foun- 
dation for the installation of some new piece of machinery. 

Once more compressed air comes to the rescue, saving time and 
labor. Either the pneumatic core breaker or a heavy riveting 
hammer borrowed from the foundry or boiler shop is called 
into use and the problem solved. Where these are not avail- 
able, a small pneumatic hand rock drill, shown in Fig. 86, can 
be employed. 

The removal of concrete foundations is a difficult job, as the 
concrete is composed of a heterogeneous composition. 



126 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



Almost every large industrial plant has at some time or other 
been confronted by the problem of growth; buildings are to be 
enlarged, or obsolete or inadequate machinery is to be replaced 
by more modern equipment, calling for new and heavier founda- 
tions, and, therefore, the alteration or removal of the old. 

An illustration of the adaptabili- 
ty of compressed air for this service 
is given in the following description 
of what occurred in one plant. 

Quite recently the Philadelphia 
Electric Company of Philadelphia 
had in one of their local power sta- 
tions a large machine foundation, 
which they were obliged to remove 
in order to install a machine of 
another character from that previ- 
ously occupying the space. This 
foundation was surrounded on all 
sides by expensive and delicate ma- 
chines calling for a very careful selection of the method and means 
for removing the old foundation. After several possible methods 




Fig. 85 — Method of scaling 
condenser tubes with pneu- 
matic hammer. 





Fig. 86 — Pneumatic hand rock drill for removing concrete and masonry foundations; 
drilling anchor bolt holes and digging trenches in rock formations. Illustration shows 
holes being drilled for window bolts_in"concrete. Edison Phonograph Co., Orange, N. J. 



IN THE POWER PLANT 



127 




Fig. 87 — Rolling boiler flues on a 
repair job with a Little David Pneu- 
matic Drill. 



had been considered, the drill illustrated in Fig. 86 was used. The 

holes were drilled at close enough intervals to permit of breaking 

the concrete structure by means 

of wedges driven into the holes. 

It was found that the drilling 

progressed at the rate of 24 inches 

in I minute and 12 seconds. 
The rolling of boiler flues, an 

awkward hand job, yet frequently 

necessary in the power plant, is 

one of the uses to which the 

pneumatic drill is peculiarly 

adapted. See Fig. 87. 

Pneumatic drill motors may 

also be applied in connection with 

a mechanical type of boiler scale- 
removing cutter head, operating 

the latter through the medium of a flexible shaft for curved 

tubes. Pneumatic drills are also useful for expanding the ends 

of new boiler tubes and 
flues, as well as for drilling 
metal, reaming, tapping, 
wood-boring and running 
in studs and bolts. 

For hoisting machines 
into and out of place, one 
of the portable pneumatic 
hoists already referred to 
will be found a device of 
safety and convenience, 
eliminating the arduous 
part of the task. 

Pneumatic hoists are also 
most convenient for hand- 
ling ashes in the boiler 
house. See Fig. 88. 

Within the last few years 

Fig. 88— Removing ashes from pit underneath the VaCUUm principle has 

boiler by means of a pneumatic horizontal been applied Successfully 

cylinder hoist, operating from an overhead • . , ,. . 

trolley runway. to/xmveying and disposing 




128 COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 

of ashes from a number of boilers. Such a system has been 
installed in at least one large cotton mill recently built. 

In some types of central lubricating systems, oil flows by 
gravity to a filter, and after being purified it is automatically 
forced by compressed air to an overhead clean-oil reservoir from 
which it flows by gravity to the various engines and auxiliaries 
of the plant. 

Compressed air is used in connection with some forms of oil 
and gas engines, principally for starting the engine and for forcing 
in the fuel. 

A great many steam power plants are today equipped with 
boiler furnaces arranged for burning oil as fuel. The oil is fed to 
the furnace in an atomized state by means of compressed air 
through nozzles. There are two general types of nozzles or burners 
employed, one utilizing low-pressure air supplied by a fan or blow- 
er, and the other high-pressure air supplied by a compressor. 

Other boiler plants are operating with powdered coal as fuel. 
The method is almost identical with that employed with oil 
burning boilers, the fuel being in a finely divided state. 



CHAPTER IX 
COMPRESSED AIR IN THE FOUNDRY 

The application of compressed air to foundry work was almost 
coincident with the introduction of machinery in the art of 
founding. In this respect it is unique among the powers. Its 
only rival can be said to be solely that of manual labor. 

Not only is its benefit felt in the handling of raw materials 
for founding, but in mixing, melting, molding, core making and 
in cleaning. 

In no instance can any pneumatic device for foundry service 
be said to have found its use entirely one of convenience. Each 
and every one has a permanent place entirely on the grounds of 
the economy it is able to effect ; saving labor, increasing produc- 
tion and improving the quality of the product. 

Sand Rammers. The ramming of molds, a long and arduous 
work when done by hand is now accomplished by means of the 
pneumatic sand rammer. Molds are rammed not only harder, 
but more uniformly, resulting in castings that are true to pattern 
and costly overweight avoided. Straining of the mold is elimi- 
nated and the job accomplished in less time. The molder is 
relieved of the most fatiguing part of his work and he therefore 
accomplishes more work. 

Fig. 89 shows the Bench Rammer at work. It is effectively 
used on small and medium work, usually done on the bench, 
also in connection with molding machines. For ramming shelving 
patterns the rammer is ideal. This work is usually inaccessible 
to other means. 

Fig. 90 illustrates the Floor Rammer at work. It is used for 
heavy molding, such as ramming flasks and copes for engine 
beds, sub-bases, fly- and belt- wheels, etc., also for butting off 
copes and drags rammed on jarring machines. See Table 
XXXIV. 

Records of Performance. The following figures show the 
result of some observations made in representative foundries all 
over the country. They are not merely test figures, but show 

129 



130 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



what can be accomplished with the Pneumatic Sand Rammer 
under everyday working conditions : 





riME IN PEINING AND RAMMING 




Size of Cope 


By Hand 


By Sand 
Rammer 


Ratio of 
Reduction 


Per Cent. 
Time 
Saved 


I2'xi8"x 4" 


5 min. 


1 min. 


i:5 


80 


12' x i8 v x 10" 


10 min. 


\}4 min. 


1:6.6 


85 


6'x 3'x 6" 


20 min. 


3 min. 


1:6.6 


85 


6'x 6'x 8* 


35 m * n - 


8 min. 


1:4.4 


77 


8'x 6"x 6" 


1 hour 


10 min. 


1:6 


83 


7' x 3' x 12" 


1 hour 30 min. 


16 min. 


1:5-6 


82' 


I5'x3o"x 16" 


2 hours 


27 min. 


1:4.4 


77 


12' x 7' x 16" 


2 hours 12 min. 


34 mm. 


i:3-9 


74 


87" x 159/ X 10* 


4 hours 


40 min. 


1:6 


83 


io/xoVx 15" 


3 hours 


1 hour 30 min. 


i:5-3 


81 



These figures include not only the final ramming but the more 
careful peining as well and the total time covers the completed 
job. 

In another instance, a pulley 78 inches in diameter with 24- 
inch face, was peined and rammed complete in three hours. 

These results show a ratio of advantage of machine over hand 
ramming varying from 1 39 to 1 :66 and a time saving of 74 
to 85 per cent, may be considered fairly representative of the 
reduction in time and labor cost. 

The Superintendent of one of the best organized and 
most representative foundries in this country had the follow- 
ing comments to make regarding his use of the Pneumatic Sand 
Rammer. 

"The Pneumatic Sand Rammer for foundry work has demon- 
strated that it is one of the greatest friends and labor savers of 
the progressive foundryman today. When the sand rammer 
was first introduced, there was some criticism concerning it, 
mainly arising from the natural antipathy mechanics had for 
anything in the 'machine' line, but as the operators became 
familiar with its use and recognized the effectiveness, this 
feeling rapidly disappeared. Today in our foundry the men 



IN THE FOUNDRY 



131 



take kindly to these rammers, and use them for work of every 
description. 

"Some claim that while sand rammers are valuable for ram- 
ming drags, they cannot be used successfully on copes. We have 
exploded this contention completely in our shop and use the 




Fig. 89 — Bench Rammer at work on small flasks. 



rammers on both copes and drags indiscriminately and with 
equal success." 

Fig. 91. 

"The Pneumatic Bench Rammer is a very handy tool as an 
auxiliary to the larger rammer. This rammer is very satisfac- 
tory for ramming under a shelving pattern where the construc- 
tion of the pattern is such that it is difficult to ram under it with 
the larger tool. We find the bench rammer practically indis- 
pensable for work of this nature. 



132 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



"Speaking generally, it is my opinion that the Sand Rammer 
has increased our efficiency in this line fully four or five times, 
and since we have had them installed we would regret very much 
to be obliged to go back to the old way of ramming." 

Sand Sifters. In the preparation of molding and core sand, 
its thorough screening plays an important part. 

One of the most satisfactory methods of accomplishing this 
is sifting the sand by means of the pneumatic riddle and the 
pneumatic shaker. 




Fig. 90 — Crown Floor Rammer at work in the foundry of the Lidgerwood Mfg. Co. 



Fig. 92 shows a typical portable tripod shaker and Fig. 93 a 
stationary wall or post shaker. 

The portable type being readily moved from one part of the 
foundry to another enables the screening of the sand right at 
the mold where it is to be used. 

The stationary type is intended to serve bench work or molding 
machines. 

These shakers are built in various sizes and to supply various 
grades of material. 

In the particular machine shown, the screen-holder is fastened 
directly to the piston rod of the air cylinder and is supported by 
two rocking uprights. The screen-holder is made to accommo- 
date an 18-inch foundry riddle. 

The air pressure required for its operation is 20 pounds or 
greater. At 80 pounds pressure with the valve wide open and 



IN THE FOUNDRY 



133 




Fig. 91 — Floor Sand Rammer used in conjunction with a pneumatic 
jarring machine. 

the riddle kept full, the air consumption is about 25 cubic feet 
of free air per minute. See Table XXXVI. 

The saving effected by these shakers over hand screening 
ranges from 50 to 70 per cent, per day, all costs considered. 

Molding Machines. The molding machine has also taken 
a very prominent place among foundry labor-saving devices, 



134 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 







1 CL'^^J^^^aF^ 








avwr :?: ''' , '"^il'BiM 




y 


i / » ^6H 


y/ 


%^l" i 





Fig. 92 — A typical portable sand shaker. 

enabling increased output and a higher grade product to be 
accomplished. 

It has the distinction of being equally as well operated by all 
classes of labor. Practically every line of castings can now be 
successfully and economically molded on such machines. 




Fig. 93 — A stationary wall or post sand shaker. 



IN THE FOUNDRY 



135 



Compressed air operated molding machines ram the molds 
in three different ways — 

First: By the application of static cylinder pressures, effecting 
a squeeze on the sand. See Fig. 94. 

Second: By dropping the sand surrounding the pattern upon 
an anvil with impact sufficient to ram — called 'jolt ramming'. 
See Fig. 95. 




Fig. 94 — Pneumatic squeeze molding machine. 



Third : By ramming with a blow, often utilized to fill pattern 
spaces with loose sand just prior to ramming. 

In addition there is the application of pneumatic vibrators to 
freeing patterns from the sand. 

Air pressures usually employed for the foregoing classes of 
work range from 60 to 80 pounds. 

The economies effected in pneumatic molding machines are of 
a wide range, and it is not always the foundry economy alone 
which is to be considered : thus uniformity of ramming and pat- 
tern drawing through machine molding in a brass foundry will 
often save more in waste of metal through strained molds than the 



136 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



saving in wages amounts to, but it may be generally stated that 
plain pneumatic squeezes are being installed in foundries where 
hand squeezes had been used before for a comparatively small 
wage saving, hardly proportionate to the amount of labor taken 
off the operator by the air power. In fact, operators are con- 
stantly found who will not increase output in proportion to the 
manual effort actually saved by power molding machines, and 
the employer has to be content with only a portion of the real 
saving in labor effected by the machine. From economies as 




Fig- 95 — Jolt Ramming Machine. 



low as 15 to 25 per cent, in such cases, we may find a range of 
saving extending up to reductions of direct labor cost of 75 to 
90 per cent., where the flasks are filled with sand by buckets 
on a traveling crane and the cores for these large molds, as well 
as the molds, are jolt-rammed on a machine. 

In this work, the great saving is due to two factors — 

First: Making it possible to fill and ram a mold weighing 
perhaps 25 tons in a single operation, not a little sand at a time, 
and then more sand added, and rammed as of old. 

Second: The fact that the ramming is accomplished often at 
a rate of several hundred horse power, in never to exceed one 
minute and often in 20 seconds. 



IN THE FOUNDRY 



137 



Power Squeezing Machines. Fig. 96 depicts perhaps the 
simplest type of pneumatic molding machine. 

It is a development of the hand squeezer, but unlike the latter, 
it not only relieves the molder of the fatiguing work of ramming 
the mold but of squeezing as well. 

This type of machine is intended especially for use in molding 
light snap flask work in quantity. It is designed to exert a 




Fig. 96 — Power squeezing molding machine. 

steady squeezing pressure, not a jolt. It is adjustable for different 
depths of flasks. 

It is supplied with or without a vibrator which not only assists 
in the drawing of the pattern, but also in obtaining uniform 
castings. 

These squeezing machines may be used either with hard sand 
match, Fig. 97, aluminum match plate, Fig. 98, or with steel 
match plate, as shown in Fig. 99. See Table XXXVII. 

The operation of molding on a squeezer equipped with a 
vibrator is as follows : 

This description contemplates work employing a hard sand 
match. 



138 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



The match with pattern in place is set on the machine table, 
the drag half of flask placed and filled with sand. Strike off with 
the edge of the bottom board all excess sand. 

Place the bottom board over the flask, draw the yoke of the 
machine forward to the vertical position, squeezing the mold to 
the proper density. The yoke is then thrown back and the half 
flask together with pattern and match is rolled over. 




Fig. 97 — Hard sand match. 

Next remove the match and shake parting on the mold. 
Place the cope half of flask in position, fill with sand and squeeze 
as described above. 

This completes the ramming operation and the cope board is 
then removed and a sprue cut with a tubular sprue cutter. The 
operator then starts the vibrator and grasping the cope by the 
handles, raises it and sets it to one side. The vibrator is again 
started and the pattern withdrawn by lifting the vibrator frame. 

After the pattern has been withdrawn the two flasks are placed 
together, the cope half on the drag, the flask unsnapped and the 
finished mold set on the floor for pouring. 

Where an aluminum plate is employed, the operation is iden- 
tical excepting that the plate is placed between the two halves 
of the flask with the drag side up. The parting is shaken on the 
drag side of the plate, the drag filled with sand. After the excess 
sand has been struck off and the bottom board put in position, 



IN THE FOUNDRY 



139 



the flask is rolled over and the same operations performed for 
the cope half of flask, when the squeezing yoke is brought for- 
ward and the entire mold squeezed in one operation. 




Fig. 98-A — Aluminum match plate. 




Fig' 98-B — Aluminum match plate. 



140 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



The steel plate method is employed for split patterns, from 
which castings are to be made in quantities. 

The patterns are mounted one-half on each side of a steel 
plate about 3/16 inches thick and the same process of molding 
followed as with the aluminum plate. 




Fig. 99-A — Steel match plate. 



In mounting the patterns for this method, brass stock is em- 
ployed in holes drilled through the patterns and plate, being 
riveted down to the countersinks. 

Power Squeezing Machines are also built in still another type 
known as the 'Split Pattern Machine'. See Fig. 100. They are 
intended for use with symmetrical patterns, split to a flat or 
nearly flat joint and fastened to a flat, single-faced pattern plate. 
These machines may also be used for other classes of work pro- 
vided the pattern may be split on a true plane. See Table 
XXXVII. 

In operating this machine, the half flask is placed over the 
pins in the flask frame of the machine; parting is shaken on the 
pattern and the flask filled with sand. 



IN THE FOUNDRY 



141 



The squeezing yoke is drawn forward and pressure applied. 
When the sand has been squeezed to the proper density, the 
pressure is released and the yoke thrown back. The vibrator is 




Fig. 99-B— Steel match plate 

started, loosening the pattern in the sand while the mold is being 
mechanically lifted from the pattern. 

The mold is then picked up and set on the floor and the opera- 
tion repeated for as many half molds as wanted. The plate is 
then changed to make copes and close the molds, any necessary 




Fig. 99-C — Steel match plate. 



142 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



cores having previously been set, a cope board being used with 
a sprue locating button and the sprue cut. 




Fig. ioo — Power Squeezing Split Pattern Molding Machine. 

Records of Performance. Fig. 101 shows a power squeezing 
machine, equipped with vibrator, in the plant of a large New 




Fig. ioi — Mumford power squeezing machine in the 
foundry of a New England Machine Tool Builder. 



IN THE FOUNDRY 1 43 

England Machine Tool Builder, and Fig. 102 shows the two pat- 
terns which are used in this particular machine. The operator it 
will be noted is in the act of removing the matching plate from 
the drag half of the flask. On the bench may be seen the cope 
half of flask. The molding has been done in one operation. 




Fig. 102 — Patterns employed with mold in Fig. 101. 

Fig. 103 is a photograph, taken in the foundry of the Sanitary 
Company of America, Linfield, Pa., of work performed on split 
pattern vibrator squeezing machines. One man with one ma- 
chine has an output of 50 molds 14 x 14 inches, four cores set in 
each mold, each casting weighing 12 pounds and 50 molds 




Fig. 103 — Split pattern power squeezing machines 
in the foundry of the Sanitary Co. of America. 



144 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



12 x 12 inches, no cores set, casting weighing 5 pounds. The 
operator sets his own cores, carries all his own iron, pours its 
weight, shakes out and cuts his own sand. 

In the foundry of the American Hardware Corporation where 
a great many power squeezes are employed, one man in six hours 
turns out 270 molds, 12x16x7 inches deep. 




Fig. 104 — Roll-over jarring molding machine. 



Roll-Over Jarring Molding Machines. The fact that 
Split Pattern Power Squeezing Machines are limited to flasks 
of fixed dimensions and somewhat inflexible in their application 
led to the design and construction of the Roll-Over Jarring 
machine as illustrated in Fig. 104. 

In nearly all such machines the mold is dropped away from 
the pattern, an air cylinder being provided for drawing the 
pattern. 

These machines are particularly suitable for such medium and 
large size floor work where it is desirable to make a saving in the 
time of ramming, finishing and handling. 



IN THE FOUNDRY 1 45 

The machines are not commonly used in connection with split 
patterns having irregular joints, although where castings are 
required in sufficiently large quantities they may be economically 
applied. 

The design embodies a base, at one end of which is attached a 
jarring machine. The roll-over air cylinder has already been 




Fig. 105 — A roll-over jarring machine emoloyed 
on cylinder head-work. 

referred to. The roll-over arms carry the pattern plate, which is 
centered on the table by dowel pins and when the pattern plate 
is lowered upon the jarring table, the roll-over arms are dropped 
away; there is therefore no connection with the jarring table 
during the jar-ramming process. 




Fig. 106 — Flasks filled ready for jar-ramming. 



146 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



The jarring feature saves nearly all of the ramming time, while 
the shop crane is relieved by the roll-over feature. 

See Table XXXVIII. 

The operation of molding is as follows: A flask is placed on 
the pattern plate and clamped. An extension to the flask is 
used to contain the extra loose sand required for the mold as it 
becomes compacted from jarring. 

The flask is filled with sand and jar-rammed and butted off 
with pneumatic hand rammers when they are in use in the shop. 




Fig. 107 — Complete mold with pattern 
withdrawn. 

The sand frame is then removed, the excess sand struck off and 
the bottom board clamped on. 

Next the roll-over frame is brought in contact with the pattern 
plate, picking it up. After the frame has passed the balancing 
point, pressure is released and the inverted mold is deposited on 
the receiving table. 

The clamps are next released from the flask, the vibrator 
started while admitting air to the roll-over cylinder, which now 
acts as a pattern drawing cylinder. When the pattern is with- 
drawn, the roll-over frame valve is opened causing the frame to 
roll back quickly to its original position, leaving the pattern plate 
on the jarring machine table. 



IN THE FOUNDRY I47 

After blowing the pattern plate and pattern clean, the machine 
is ready for another flask. 

Records of Performance. Fig. 105 shows a roll-over jarring 
machine at work in a large foundry on a cylinder head mold. In 
this view the pattern is shown on the pattern plate ready to 
receive the flask. Fig. 106 shows the flask filled ready for jar 
ramming. Fig. 107 shows the pattern plate and pattern sus- 
pended after having been withdrawn from the mold. 




Fig. 108 — Anvil type jarring machine. 

In the foundry of the Best Manufacturing Company, Pitts- 
burgh, Pa., manufacturers of high-pressure valves and fittings, 
three molders and five helpers produce eighty-eight flasks — 
ninety-seven castings of a total weight of 16,136 pounds in one 
and one-half days. Flasks are of miscellaneous sizes, 30 x 38 x 14 
inches, 32 x 41 x 14 inches, 27 x 46 x 13 inches, etc., both cope 
and drag. 

Jolt Ramming or Jarring Machines. Such machines are 
particularly adapted to large deep work or where the ramming 
forms a large part of the time consumed in molding. They are 
also useful for ramming large cores. The action is one of packing 
the sand in the mold by impact between the table carrying the 
mold and an anvil on which the table drops. Fig. 108 shows a 
machine for jarring molds and Fig. 109 a machine designed 
specially for core work. See Table XXXIX. 



I48 COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 

Records of Performance. Figs, no, in and 112 depict 
scenes in the foundry of the separator works of the King Sewing 
Machine Company, Buffalo, N. Y. They cover the molding of 
the two heaviest and most important castings, the frame and 
base, on jolt, pit pattern drawing machines. 

The information which follows was largely furnished by the 
publishers of Iron Age. 





E"^^ 




Kb 


i ■ ■ '.•' 







Fig. 109 — Jarring machine designed specially for core work. 

Referring to the frame casting, the patterns are split and each 
half is mounted on a jolt machine with pit-draft stripping mecha- 
nism. As indicated in one of the illustrations, the pattern is 
bolted rigidly and directly to the table of the machine, the 
stripping plate being loose, and in another the pattern is shown 
mounted with the stripping plate in position ready for putting 
on the flask. The former illustration shows the flask stripped 
from the pattern and removed from the stripper, on the top of 
which it is left standing, on edge. The body and end cores are 
shown at the left of the machine, the resulting casting appearing 
at the right with the bearing cores. The flask for this job is 
15x26 inches, the drag being 7 inches in depth and the cope 
only 6 inches. Notwithstanding this very shallow depth of 



IN THE FOUNDRY 



149 



flask and the fact that the casting weighs but 56 pounds the 
ramming of the mold is accomplished with uniform firmness. 




Fig. no — Jolt ramming machine at work on separator 
pedestals. 




Fig. in — Jolt ramming machine at work on cream 
separator frames. 



Three men, one handling the cores and the other two men 
molding, comprise the gang. None of them have had previous 
experience with this class of work, and they are now turning 
out 155 molds as well as pouring off. With three men and no 
core setter 165 molds are produced, while with three men 



150 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



and a core setter 200 molds are produced daily. Thus an aggre- 
gate casting weight of from 8,680 to 11,200 pounds is produced 
on this floor each day. As indicated two men are required to 
carry off each half mold. No bottom boards are used as planed 
cast-iron plates are set level in the floor. 

The ordinary method of making work of this size and character 
has been to mount the pattern on a plain stripper, roll-over 
machine or split pattern squeezer with stripping plate. It is 
apparent that with the pattern and equipment properly designed 




Fig. 112 — Shows a jolt ramming machine with a com- 
pleted mold for a cream separator frame, the pattern 
employed in making this mold and a finished casting. 

it is possible to accomplish a greater volume of work by jolting, 
even with a small size and weight of casting, than can be pro- 
duced by any other method. The experience with these separator 
frames has indicated that such castings made on a jolt machine 
with a pit pattern stripper on frames can be produced with 
marked uniformity both as to weight and size, considerations of 
great importance, in view of the fact that the castings are finished 
in automatic machines and must fit the jigs. It is estimated that 
the annual saving in overweight on castings made by this jar- 
ramming method, as compared with hand ramming or squeezing, 
has amounted to a considerable tonnage and a direct saving of 
several hundred dollars. 

In the engraving of the machines on which the molds for the 
separator base are made, the drag machine is the one at the left, 



IN THE FOUNDRY 



151 



and the illustration shows a completed drag half of the mold 
suspended on the air hoist. The cope is made up on the machine 
at the right and, being much smaller, no hoist is required as two 
men can readily handle it. No stripping plate is used on these 
machines, the mold being stripped direct from the pattern. The 




Fig. 113 — Power roll-over jarring molding machine. 



base, which has a cross-section of metal only 5/16 inches thick, 
suggests a rather difficult job of ramming to avoid soft spots at 
the point where the pedestal curves out to form the legs. As 
may be noted, air holes are drilled through the flask so that any 
tendency to form air pockets at the points where difficulty was 
likely to be encountered is avoided, and it has been found that 
the sand packs in uniformly. 



152 COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 

Referring further to the drag machine, the pattern base is 
cast in one piece, as it was found that the original pattern made 
with the pattern proper cast separately from the base could not 
be kept in good working condition without excessive cost for 
repairs. The present pattern has proved highly satisfactory. 
It has two lugs, as shown in the illustration, and a novel feature 




Fig. 114 — Grinder frame mold made on combined 
roll-over and jarring molding machine. 

involved in the making of this casting arises from the jolting of 
the mold with lugs in extended positions, then opening the door 
on the side of the flask, ramming sand firmly around them and 
closing the door, following which the lugs are thrown back by a 
special mechanism to permit of stripping. The completed drag 
is then raised from the pattern by the elevation of the four 
vertical rods on which it rests. From these supporting rods the 
drag is lifted by an air hoist. On this job four men and a core 
setter turn out and pour off 130 molds per day, the core setter 
having a large body core to place. The castings weigh 41 pounds 



IN THE FOUNDRY 1 53 

each, and it is estimated that the production on the jar-ramming 
machine, as compared with other methods, results in an increased 
tonnage of castings amounting to at least 40 per cent. 

Combination Jarring and Roll-Over Machines. Jarring 
machines are being used to good advantage in combination with 




Fig. 115 — Jarring, squeezing, roll-over and pat- 
tern drawing molding machine. 

other molding machines. Fig. 113 shows a power roll-over 
machine in combination with a jarring machine. 

See Table XL. 

Fig. 114 shows a grinder frame mold made on this combination 
machine. This half mold was made by two men in ten minutes 
and a complete mold, including core setting, could be made in 
half an hour. 

Originally two men made two molds per day, working by hand. 
With the aid of a jarring machine this was increased to five per 
day and from the performance of the combination, roll-over and 
jarring machines, on the half mold, a production of twenty a 
day could be expected. 



154 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



Fig. 115 shows a combination machine for jar- ramming, squeez- 
ing, roll-over and drawing the pattern by compressed air power. 
This same machine may be used just for squeeze, roll-over and 
pattern drawing where shallow work is to be done. 




Fig. 116 — In the foundry of the Lidgerwood 
Mfg. Co., Newark, N. J., air motor hoists 
are used in conjunction with swinging wall 
cranes for handling molds, patterns, etc. 
Note that it has been found advantageous 
to install these wall frames and hoists, in 
spite of the fact that the traveling crane 
serves the entire foundry. 




Fig. 117 — In the foundry of McNab & 
Harlin, Paterson, N. J., a number of air 
motor hoists operating in conjunction with 
hand operated travelers meet all the re- 
quirements for hoisting and handling molds, 
patterns, cores, etc. ' 

Air Hoists. The air hoist in the foundry finds its application 
for lifting off copes, without jar; for lifting large patterns clear 
of molds (See Fig. 116, 117 and 118) ; lifting large green cores and 
for placing them in position for drying; for setting dry sand cores; 
in the latter work absence of shock or jar is highly essential. 



IN THE FOUNDRY 



155 




Fig. 118 — View in the foundry of the Pratt & Whitney Co., Hartford, Conn. Both 
motor and cylinder hoists are used in conjunction with swinging post cranes as auxil- 
iaries to a large traveling crane. 

They are also employed for conveying flasks outside of the 
foundry to storage sheds, patterns to pattern shop and finished 
castings to machine shop. 




Fig. 119 — A pneumatic cylinder hoist arranged to 
raise and lower annealing furnace doors. 



156 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



Cupola elevators and core oven doors may be advantageously 
operated and putting up cupola doors accomplished by the 
pneumatic hoist. See Fig. 119. 

Cranes are powerized by means of the Air Motor and Air 
Hoists. See Fig. 120 




Fig. 120 — A view in the foundry of the 
National Car Wheel Co., Sayre, Pa. In this 
foundry air motors have been used to 
powerize hand cranes. The hand operating 
feature has been retained. 



A complete description of Hoists is given in Chapter VI on 
Portable Pneumatic Tools, also in Chapter XIV on Hoisting, 
Handling and Conveying. 

Chipping Hammers. The value of the Pneumatic Chipping 
Hammer in a foundry, as a saver of time and labor, is univer- 
sally conceded. Suffice it to say that for all classes of chipping 
in foundry work, such as chipping fins off castings, cutting gates, 
risers, buttons off anchors, and general trimming, one man with 
one hammer of the proper size will do as much work as three to 



IN THE FOUNDRY 



157 




Fig. 121 — Chipping Hammers at work on a large fly-wheel. The use of pneumatic 
chipping hammers for this class of work has enabled the foundryman to make a 
considerable saving in the cost of trimming and finishing castings. 




Fig. 122 — In the foundry of McNab & Harlin, Paterson, N. J. small 
chipping hammers are employed for all kinds of casting trimming. 



158 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



four men chipping by hand. Chipping Hammers are made in 
different sizes and it is important that the proper size tool should 
be selected for the work to insure the best results; the short 




Fig. 123 — Skin drying a gear wheel mold, 4 ft. in diameter to a 
uniform depth of K in. in 12 minutes with a Hauck Portable Oil 
Torch operated by compressed air. 

stroke tools being intended for the lighter work, requiring a 
light and very rapid blow, the longer stroke tools for the heavier 
work, requiring a heavy and slower blow. The medium sizes 
are the ones most generally used for foundry work. 




Fig. 124 — Baking ornamental molds with a Hauck Burner. The 
molds are placed in a sheet-iron box lined with asbestos or fire clay. 



IN THE FOUNDRY 



159 




Fig. 125 — This view shows one 
method of applying the^oil 
burner to drying foundry ladles. 

Fig. 121 shows several pneumatic chipping hammers at work 
on a large fly-wheel in the foundry of a large Pennsylvania ma- 
chinery manufacturer. Fig. 122 shows still another application. 

Pneumatic Drills. The usefulness of the pneumatic drill 
to the foundry is somewhat limited except perhaps in its applica- 




Fig. 126 — Method of applying the 
oil burner to cupola firing. 



160 COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 

tion to repair of boilers and other machinery. They may, however, 
be applied to advantage in drilling salamanders. This is a mass 
of cast-iron or steel which pours out of the cupola when the 
bottom falls out. This metal runs out on the floor, mixing with 
the sand and clinker and forming a very tough composition which 
must be broken up into small pieces before it can be remelted. 



Fig. 127 — Oil burners can be used to salvage 
condemned castings. The illustration shows 
the method of applying the burner to this 
' class of work. 

Air Operated Oil Torch. The use of the air torch has be- 
come quite prevalent in the foundry for skin drying and baking 
molds and cores, drying ladles, and lighting cupolas and spraying 
blacking on molds. 

They have the advantage of doing away with obnoxious gases 
and smoke, are cleanly and instantly available. 

See Table XLII. 

Molds may be dried where made, thus avoiding danger of 
breakage, and the saving of time and labor. See Figs. 123 and 124. 



IN THE FOUNDRY 



161 



For drying ladles no better or quicker means could be devised. 
Fig. 125 shows how one foundry accomplishes this work. 

The air torch used for cupola lighting has solved the problem 
of safety while making it possible to light the cupola bed quickly 
and evenly without the use of shavings or other combustible 
material. 

Fig. 126 illustrates the method of applying the air torch to 
cupola lighting. 

The burner is placed in the spout, at the tap hole, or the 
breast, or at a specially cut hole and the flame directed by the 
compressed air against the coke bed, producing immediate igni- 
tion. This is accomplished without injury to the cupola lining, 
enabling the fan blast to be started in the least time and insuring 
clean, hot iron as there is an entire absence of ashes. 

These torches can also be applied to the repair of castings 
which would otherwise be condemned and go into the scrap pile. 

Fig. 127 shows the method of applying the torch. The defec- 
tive parts are heated to the melting point and the fluid metal 
allowed to amalgamate with the original casting. 



TABLE XXXVI 
SAND SIFTING MACHINES 













Air Con- 


Type 


Size 
Ins. 


Screen 
Box 


Weight 
Lbs. 


Air 

Pressure 

Lbs. 


sumption 

at 80 Lbs. 

Cu. Ft. 

Per Min. 


Tripod Shaker . . . 


2V16 


18-in. Dia. 


120 


20-80 


25 


Tripod Shaker . . . 


3 


2 x 3 ft. 


250 


20-80 


35 


Stationary Post Shaker 


2V16 


18-in. Dia. 


65 


20-80 


25 


Swivel Post Shaker 


2 7 /i6 


* T 8 " " 


115 


20-80 


25 


Trough Shaker . . . 


2 7 /i6 


18 " ■ 


70 


20-80 


25 



* This takes ordinary 18-in. round foundry riddle, 
square screen boxes 9 x 12 ins. or 12 x 14 ins. 

NOTE — Any desired mesh of screen may be used. 



It can be furnished for 



1 62 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



8 § 



O -M 



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oooooooooooooooooooooo 
oooooooooooooocooooooooooooooooooooooooooocx) 



4 (!) (!) 



4 4 4 



4 4 4 4 



vOvOvOvOvOvOvOvOvO^OvOvOvOvO^ovOvOvOvOvOvO^O 



u, 0) 

o y 

O rt 

« a 



J3 

.5P 
'53 



DC!? 

G «° *bfi CO 



3 S .Sf> 



(o 



Q PQ t> 



CN v£) O 

CO to ^ 

g ---'•----'•'•-'•- --»'----- 

O •^•vovOoovOoo lOOOOvOoo i-ivOvO i- O vO Ooovooo 
CNCNCN>-«Mi-iMtH(N'-<i-«i-«eiNCNCNfOcOcO' ,! 3"tO^- 

XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX 



.Ad 

en 



rf O 



a 



^■f5^"tOiOtO , t\000\0^00 



•* rt- «d- O ^ vO O 

N N N CO N tO to 



U 
CU 

.5 

u 



O tO vO O O fOtOtOtOtOtO^^ 



o o 

CN CN 



•rh "* O O vO vO vO 

CN CN to tO to tO to 



T3 
oJ - 

.s s 

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to 



CU 

.2 

j . e d d d 

.5 g 'T "f '7 "•? 

'SSSSijsss^VOs:* CNOCN 



CU 

a 



CU 
N 
CU 
CU 

3 

cr 



CU 


CU 


£ * 




o 


cd 


Oh 


Oh 






CtJ 


__ 




a 


Oh 


fc/J 



IN THE FOUNDRY 



163 



W 
Z 

t-H 

u 
< 

3 S 






w 

CQ 
< 



Pi 
> 

o 

I 

o 



Air Con- 
sumption 
Cu. Ft. 
Per Min. 




Floor 
Space 




bfl 

1 




Portable or 
Stationary 


Portable 
u 

Portable or Stationary 

it it it 

Stationary 


Capacity 

Air Pressure 

80 Lbs. 


09 

►J 

OOOOOOO 
OOOOOOO 
tJ- tJ- 00 00 O N lO 



-t-> 

a 
& 


Draft 
Ins. 


IOQO N N 00 N 00 

t-l MM 


Machine 
Size 
Ins. 


00 00 Tj- rf O O O 

►1 <-* 01 N CO rO rf 


0) 

a 


Hand Roll-Over, Hand Draft 

a u « « 

Power 

a a a u 

« « Power " 

« « a u 
a a u a 



1 64 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



TABLE XXXIX 
JOLT RAMMING MACHINES 



Size of 
Cylinder 


Capacity 

at 80 Lbs. 

Air Pressure 

Lbs. 


Size of 

Table 

Ins. 


Gross 

Weight 

Lbs. 


3-in. Jolt 


350 


15 x 20 


350 




4 " " 


700 


18 x 24 


500 




VA " " 


800 


18 x 24 


650 




6 fl " 


1,500 


20 x 30 


1,050 




8 " " 


2,500 


30 x 42 


2,150 




10 " " 


3,700 


42 x 54 


4,600 




10 " " 


3,000 


30 x 144 


9,000 




14 " " 


7,200 


48 x 72 


10,000 




14 " " 


7,200 


30 x 144 


15,000 




16 " " 


8,500 


72 x 72 


16,000 




16 " " 


8,000 


32 x 168 


22,600 




20 " " 


12,000 


33 x 93 


16,800 




20 " " 


15,000 


72 x 72 


15,800 




20 " " 


14,000 


72 x 108 


26,000 




22 " " 


18,000 


40 x 96 


26,000 




24 " " 


24,000 


72 x 72 


19,400 




24 " " 


23,000 


72 x 108 


26,250 




32 " « 


44,000 


72 x 108 


36,300 




32 " " 


39,000 


96 x 144 


43,000 




32 « " 


39,000 


84 x 168 


44,200 




36 « " 


50,000 


96 x 144 







IN THE FOUNDRY 165 

TABLE XL 
COMBINATION JARRING AND ROLL-OVER MACHINES 



Jarr- 


Roll- 


Pattern 


Flask 




Capacity 
Net Lbs. 


Weight 
of Lbs. 




Air Con- 


ing 


Over 


Plate 


(Inside) 


Draft 


Wgt. at 
80 Lbs. 


Com- 


Floor 


sumption 


Cyl. 


Cyl. 


Ins. 


Ins. 


Ins. 


plete 


Space 


Cu. Ft. 


Ins. 


Ins. 








Pressure 


Machine 
Lbs. 




Per Min. 


6 


12 


28x42 


24x36 


12 


1,200 








10 


18 


44x70 


36x54 


13 


2,500 








13 


24X 


55X76K 


48x60 


I2t02I 


3.500 








20 


32 


64x76 


54X54 


I2t024 


5,000 









TABLE XLI 
CORE BREAKERS 







Length 


Bore of 


Length 


Size 


Size 




Weight 


Over 


Cyl. 
Ins 


of 


of 


of 




Lbs. 


All 


Stroke 


Inlet 


Hose 






Ins. 




Ins. 


Ins. 


Ins. 


Valve Type 


18 


19H 


iH 


3^ 


% 


X 


Valveless Type 


16 


18 


1* 

and ixi 


2^ 


H 


y* 



TABLE XLI I 
PORTABLE OIL BURNERS 











Air Con- 






No. 


Capacity 


Length 


Oil Con- 


sumption 

Cu. Ft. 

Free Air 


Shipping 


Weight of 


of Tank 


of Hose 


sumption 
per Hour 


Weight 


Burner 




Gals. 


Ft. 


Gals. 


Per Min. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


1 


16 


24 


4 


20 


no 


15 


2 


15 


24 


3 


15 


100 


10 


4 


12 


24 


2 


12 


90 


6 


5 


10 


24 


1 


8 


85 


3 


6 


8 


24 


1 


5 


75 


2 



CHAPTER X 
SAND BLASTING 

The usefulness of the sand blast is not alone confined to clean- 
ing castings in the foundry, although this is one of its important, 
if not the most important application. 

It is being very successfully applied to such work as putting a 
satin finish on completed work; removing scale, paint and rust 
from various surfaces; preparing metal surfaces for painting, 
enameling, tinting, sherardizing, or galvanizing; cleaning and 
finishing castings, etc. 

In addition to producing a better class of work the cost for 
cleaning shows a decided reduction, ranging from a few minutes 
on the small job to days on large, intricate work. 

The Sand Blast in the Foundry. Next to the actual mold- 
ing and pouring of the casting there is, perhaps, no foundry 
operation of greater importance than that of thorough and sat- 
isfactory cleaning of castings. 

Under the old methods of hand cleaning, and the use of plain 
tumbling barrels and similar apparatus, the operation was al- 
ways one requiring considerable time and extreme patience. It 
meant high cost, and above all tended to restrict the capacity of 
the foundry, for deliveries were dependent upon the cleaning 
and this, in turn, placed a restriction on the molding capacity. 

While it is true that some of the older methods, such as brush- 
ing, tumbling, pickling and blowing still have their advantages 
for particular classes of work, the real solution for general com- 
mercial work, including all classes of castings, large, medium 
and small, is to be found in the sand blast. 

There are many makes, styles and kinds of sand blast appara- 
tus from which to choose, each having its own peculiar advan- 
tages. Some are designed to employ high- and others low-pressure 
air. 

There has been some question as to the relative merits of high- 
and low-pressure air for sand blasting, and a great many experi- 
ments have been conducted to determine the best air pressure 
for various classes of cleaning work. As a general thing the re- 

166 



SAND BLASTING 



167 



suits have seemed to favor the employment of high-pressure air 
for all-round general use. 

It has been determined and is generally conceded that the 
volume of air required is governed by the size of the opening in 
the sand blast nozzle, and the pressure maintained, based on the 
standard flow of air at a given pressure through a given size 
orifice. Therefore, the higher the pressure, the greater the vol- 
ume of air used, but the amount and quality of work done in- 
creases correspondingly without added labor costs. It has been 
further proven in these tests 2 that twice as much work can be 
done at 50 lbs. pressure as at 20 lbs.; at 64 lbs. as at 30 lbs.; 
and at 72 lbs. as at 40 lbs. It has also been shown that gray iron 
and malleable castings can be cleaned best and quickest with an 
air pressure of 80 lbs. ; brass and aluminum castings at not lower 
than 60 lbs.; while for steel castings, the hardest to clean, not 
less than 90 lbs. The character of the material and its ability to 
withstand the impact of the sand will determine the pressure 
adaptable. 

Nozzles. The following table shows the volume of air (com- 
pressor piston displacement) required at 80 lbs. pressure with 
standard sizes of nozzles : 



Size of Nozzle 


&-in. I.D. 


^-'m. I.D. 


H-'m. I.D. 


J^-in. I.D. 


Grain of Sand 


10 mesh 


8 mesh 


7 mesh 


5 mesh 


Sand Delivered per hour 


500 lbs. 


900 lbs. 


1 ,700 lbs. 


3,000 lhs 


Free Air Used per min. 


45 cu.ft. 


85 cu.ft. 


191 cu.ft. 


340 cu.ft. 



As these nozzles have to withstand considerable wear, and all 
nozzles will wear in spite of the class of material used, it is highly 
desirable that the foundry purchase them from the manufacturer 
of the sand blast equipment. A short nozzle usually wears better 
than a long one, as the latter gives the sand an opportunity to 
eddy from side to side, resulting in the expenditure of valuable 
energy in wearing out the nozzle. On the nozzle is dependent 
the economy of operation of the sand blast itself, for, as already 
stated, the size of the opening governs the flow of air and sand. 
This point is well illustrated by the series of nozzles shown in 
Fig. 128. Nos. 2 and 3 illustrate the quarter-inch nozzle before 

2 See paper by Professor W. T. Magruder, "Transactions American Society of Mechanical 
Engineers. ' ' 



1 68 COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 

use; Nos. I and 4 show this same nozzle in similar positions to 
Nos. 2 and 3 after considerable service; No. 5 shows an ordinary 
nozzle after an equal amount of work, it originally being the 
same size as the nozzle shown in No. 3. 

For the sake of economy in consumption of power the nozzle 
should be changed when the outlet shows any appreciable en- 
largement over the original bore. 

It is becoming quite general practice where the sand blast 
equipment is employed on a large scale to provide a special 
cleaning room, the walls of which are substantially constructed 
of metal to resist wear. Such matters as ventilation, drying and 




Fig. 128 — Effect of wear on Sand Blast Nozzles. 

conveying of the sand, means for holding the castings, and gen- 
eral convenience for the operator are all given careful consider- 
ation. 

In fact, so important has the problem become that it is not un- 
common for the foundry to contract with the manufacturer of 
sand blast equipment for the complete installation of the plant. 
In the following pages will be discussed the several methods and 
types of equipment adapted to foundry work more particularly 
and which can also be applied to other uses. 

Condition of Air. To obtain the most satisfactory operation 
from the sand blast equipment, there are a number of things 
which require careful consideration on the part of the foundry- 
man — for instance, the condition of the air is of prime importance. 
It must be perfectly dry, free alike from moisture and oil before 
contact of the air with the sand, making it imperative that a 
thoroughly reliable separator be employed. 

Abrasives. Clean, sharp sand is necessary for the best results, 
and it is surprising to what extent the class of sand affects both 



SAND BLASTING 1 69 

operating expense and production. The sand should be free from 
clay, loam or any other substances not possessing abrasive 
qualities. 

It is to be noted that the sand can be used over and over again, 
although after each use it should be put through a separating 
process to remove all dust and other foreign substances gathered 
while cleaning the castings. 

The above reference to the use of sand should not be taken to 
mean that other abrasive materials cannot be used. Angular 







Fig. 129 — Hose Sand Blast Machine. 

grit, crushed steel, steel shot, etc., are equally adaptable for the 
work. 

While any of these abrasives may be used separately, experi- 
ence has shown that the most economical results for general 
classes of work are obtained with a mixture of chilled iron grit 
75 per cent., and sand 25 per cent. The grades of materials 
most commonly used are No. i-I Sand, No. 30 Grit, and No. 7 
Shot. 

It is highly desirable that the flow of air and sand be uniform. 
If too little sand is fed the abrasive action will be light and air 
wasted, while unequal flow causes the partial loss of abrasive 
power. 

Regulate the flow of sand so that just enough will issue from 
the nozzle to give a good cutting effect. The sand cleans by 
striking an infinite number of sharp blows and not by the fric- 



170 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



tion of the particles sweeping over the surface. Just enough sand 
will permit each grain to do its most effective work. Too much 
sand will cause the particles to rub on one another and reduce 
their energy. 

As a rule the nozzle is held from 6 to 12 inches from the surface 
to be cleaned, and usually an angle of from 30 to 45 degrees will be 
found most effective. 

Sand Blast Equipment. Fig. 129 shows a typical high-pres- 
sure sand blast hose machine. This machine is furnished com- 
plete with hose and nozzles and pressure gauge all ready for 




Fig. 130 — Air and Sand Control of Hose Sand Blast Machine. 



operation. The flow of air and sand is controlled as follows: 
the compressed air after passing through the moisture and oil 
separator shown at the side of Fig. 129 is carried to the air 
regulating valve (ioi) under the control of handle (102). The air 
is full-on when the handle is in line with air pipe as shown in 
Fig. 130; with handle at right angles to the air line the regulator 
is closed. It is possible to regulate the air to any desired volume 
between fully closed and fully open at the option of the operator. 
From the regulator the air is transmitted to and down the cyl- 
inder (30) by opening the valve (114) and is admitted to the 
sand chamber maintaining an equal pressure above the sand and 
assuring constant uniform flow. The air can be released from 
the sand chamber at any time through pipe (119) by opening 



SAND BLASTING 



171 



the exhaust valve (114 A). The sand controller handle (31) 
moves on a quadrant, having limit stops for its off- and full-on 
positions. By means of this handle, a plate (40) shown in Fig. 
131, is rotated, opening and closing the sand ports as desired. 

The mixing of the sand and air and their transmission to the 
hose is clearly shown in Fig. 131. When lever (31) is opened the 
sand falls into the mixing chamber through an elliptical opening 
in the casing (38) and through the plates (39 and 40) . The air is 
carried into the cylinder (30) through the center of the valve 




Fig. 131 — Mixing Chamber of Hose Sand Blast Machine. 



casing to the mixing chamber (47^ where it mixes with the sand 
by a swirling motion imparted by the shape of the mixing 
chamber itself and is transmitted from there to the hose. The 
mixture of sand and air is carried through openings that gradu- 
ally reduce as they approach the hose connection. See Table 
XLIII. 

Air Separator. Most manufacturers provide an air separ- 
ator as a part of the sand blast machine, the purpose of which is 
to remove the moisture and oil from the air before it is mixed 
with the sand. This device generally consists of a steel tank con- 
taining a series of perforated shields and solid baffle plates which 
deflect the air in such a manner as to cause the precipitation of 
the moisture or any other liquids. The desirability of eliminating 



17- 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



moisture and oil from the air has already been touched upon. 
A typical moisture separator is shown in section in Fig. 132. 
See Table XLIV. 

Sand Blast Barrel. Fig. 133 shows another type of sand 
blast equipment known as a sand blast barrel. The purpose of 
this machine is to quickly and economically clean small castings 
or other metal parts, and is equally adaptable to the use of either 
sand or other forms of abrasive. The opera- 
tion of this machine is not unlike the tumbling 
barrel. It contains a drum which rotates at a 
predetermined speed, continuously turning the 
castings and presenting new surfaces to the 
action of the sand blast, the sand blast noz- 
zles being introduced at carefully determined 
points of the barrel. In the sand blast barrel 
the flow of sand is automatic. It starts 
when air is turned on and stops when it is 
turned off. 

Power for rotating the drum is obtained by 
belting to line shaft or other power-transmit- 
ting means. Access to the drum is had by 
means of a door, the discharge of the castings 
being automatic with the opening of the door 
and the rotation of the barrel. See Table XLV. 
Sand Blast Table or Car. In Fig. 134 is 
shown a common type of sand blast table or 
car used with the sand blast machine shown 
in Fig. 129. This table or car is built sub- 
stantially of metal and fitted with a series 
of rollers which enable the quick and easy handling of castings. 
This table will be referred to further on in connection with sand 
blasting room operations. The casting shown required eighteen 
minutes to clean by the sand blast. 

Rotating Sand Blast Table Machine. This machine has 
been developed to handle castings which cannot be cleaned to 
advantage in a tumbling barrel. It comprises an inclosed, slowly 
rotating table, constructed of heavy cast-iron removable grates 
on which the castings are placed. As the table rotates a number 
of nozzles, depending upon the size of the table, play on the 
castings. In operating the machine the operator stands in front 




Fig. 132 — Air 
Separator. 



SAND BLASTING 



173 




Fig- 133 — Sly Sand Blast Barrel. 

where he is protected from flying particles of dust and sand by 
means of a split rubber curtain which allows the castings to pass 
by easily. A dust exhauster, as well as a dust arrester, are usu- 
ally a part of this machine. This latter equipment is described 
further on. See Table XLVI. 




Fig. 134 — Sand Blast Car. 



174 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



Fig. 135 illustrates the rotating sand blast table machine. It 
will be noted that a sand hopper is a part of the machine, this 
hopper having sufficient capacity to feed the nozzles continuously. 
A bucket elevator forming an endless chain belt arrangement and 
operating in a steel dust-proof housing, elevates the sand to the 
hopper from where it flows by gravity to the sand valves. 




Fig. 13s — Sly Rotating Sand Blast Table Machine. 



In operation the sand falls through the table gratings into a 
steel hopper located below the table. Steel brushes below this 
table brush the sand into the lower hopper, from which it falls 
into the buckets and is elevated to the upper hopper. The sand 
is thoroughly sifted and all refuse removed on its way to the 
hopper. 

The operation of sand blasting is as follows : 

The castings are placed in position on the table, which is ro- 
tated at the speed necessary to give best results with the partic- 
ular castings. The nozzles are arranged to revolve in the oppo- 
site direction to the rotation of the table. When one side of the 



SAND BLASTING 1 75 

castings has been sufficiently cleaned, they are turned over by 
the operator and the cleaning process finished. 

Sand Separators. The necessity for sand separation has been 
previously referred to. Figs. 136 and 137 depict two types of 
sand separators. These separators are essentially screening 
machines used to separate dust and refuse from the usable sand, 
both new and old. They are an economical necessity to sand 
blast equipment, making it possible to use the sand a number of 
times over. See Table XLVII. 




Fig. 136 — Sand Separator. 

The separator shown in Fig. 136 consists of an air operated 
cylinder with piston attached to a screen box. It operates very 
much on the hand riddle principle in which the sand is tossed up 
from the ends of the screen box to the center of the screen, ef- 
fectually breaking up the lumps and carrying the sand through. 

In operation the material is shoveled into an upper screen in 
the separator. This box contains a screen of mesh designed to 
retain all large and heavy sand that would clog the nozzles. 
The fine dust and disintegrated sand having no abrasive value 
pass through a lower screen and are deposited through a chute at 
the side, while the clean, sharp sand suitable for re-use is carried 
to the hopper. The screens are interchangeable, permitting the 
use of any size mesh. 



I76 COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 

The separator shown in Fig. 137, while an effectual sand sep- 
arator, is intended for screening sand where but one separation 
is required. It consists of a heavy galvanized box, which can be 
fitted with detachable screens of the required mesh. The screen- 
ing action is performed by a small air engine to the reciprocating 
piston of which is attached a screen box. 

In operation the clean sand is delivered to the hopper shown 
below the screen box, from where the sand is delivered to a pail 
by means of a gate on the hopper. This sand separator being 





Fig. 137 — Light Portable Sand 

Separator. Fig. 138 — Sand Drier. 

portable can be used for general foundry purposes in connection 
with screening molding sand. 

These separators are also built in stationary wall and post 
types. 

Sand Drier. It has also been previously mentioned that a 
sand drier is essential to the most efficient operation of sand 
blast equipment. Moist sand tends to clog the nozzles and does 
not flow freely. The result is wasted power and ineffectual 
abrasive action. 

In Fig. 138 is shown a typical sand drier. This drier consists 
of a stove or fire box over-capped by a conical sand box contain- 
ing a perforated screen. 

In operation the sand is dumped into the sand box where it 
drops on the perforated screen, keeping the sand away from 
direct contact with the fire box and allowing the heated air to 
pass under the sand. The heated air carries off the moisture 



SAND BLASTING 



177 



and as the sand becomes dry it drops through the perforations of 
the screen and runs down the inclined top of the fire box onto the 
floor. In order to insure the complete drying of the sand a num- 
ber of inverted flues project from the fire box through the sand 
box into the open air. 

In drying sand it is highly desirable that it be dried without 
rendering the sand friable, also that it does not become baked. 

Most of these sand driers are arranged to burn soft coal, coke 
or wood. See Table XLVIII. 




Fig. 139 — Dust Exhauster to Atmosphere. 



Dust Arresters or Ventilating Systems. In order to have 
blasting room conditions the most conducive to the greatest pro- 
duction, it is essential that a dust arrester be employed. 

In Fig. 139 is shown a common type of dust arrester. See 
Table XLIX. 

With this type of ventilating system the dust is drawn out-of- 
doors from the barrel or room by the exhauster. 

It is applicable to plants where the exhausting of the dust to 
the atmosphere is not objectionable. 

Fig. 140 shows a system in which the dust is drawn from the 
room or barrel into an arrester which will retain very nearly all 
the dust. It is suitable for plants where the surroundings are 
such that it is not absolutely essential to confine all the dust. 
See Table L. 



i 7 8 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



In the particular system, shown in Fig. 141, the air laden with 
dust is drawn into the chamber at the left, while the fan ex- 
hausts the chamber at the right. Intermediately between the 
chamber and the fan is located a battery of screens through 
which the dust cannot pass. The dust remains in the chamber 
and none but clean, purified air is drawn into the fan and dis- 




Fig. 140 — Exhauster System which retains nearly- 
all the dust. 




Fig. 141 — With this System the purified air is returned 
to the Blasting Room. 



charged into the sand blasting room, eliminating discomfort and 
annoyance to workmen and the destruction of machinery. This 
system is ideal for plants where it is important to confine and 
collect all the dust. See Table LI. 

Hose. Sand blast hose should be of good quality. It has been 
found that rubber-lined, closely woven duck, sufficiently heavy 
to withstand the pressure of the air as well as presenting a wear- 
resisting surface to the cutting action of the flowing abrasive, is 
best for the purpose. 



SAND BLASTING 



179 



The sizes most generally employed range from ^ to i}4 inches. 
Couplings and clamps specially fitted for the duty may be pur- 
chased from manufacturers of sand blast equipment. 

Gloves. The protection afforded by a good leather or rub- 
ber glove to the operators' hands cannot be ignored. The oper- 
ation of sand blast equipment should not be permitted without 
this protection. See Fig. 142. 











[11 li 




*§[* tSv^s 


3 * 


<5? 







Fig. 142 — Two Styles of Sand Blasting Gloves. 



Hoods and Respirators. Figs. 143, 143 A and 144 illustrate 
two articles of apparel necessary to the comfort and protection 
of the operator of a sand blast. The hood not only protects the 
operator from flying sand but effectually keeps out dust. 

In certain classes of work the hood is not sufficient for the 
purpose, and in such cases it is strongly urged that the operator 
wear a suitable respirator. These respirators generally carry a 
dampened sponge through which the operator breathes, the dust 
being retained in the sponge. 

Sand Blast Rooms. For the small foundry, perhaps the sim- 
plest plan is to employ the sand blast hose machine shown in 
Fig. 129 in conjunction with an ordinary metal-grated covered 
table or car in a conveniently partitioned off corner of the foun- 



i8o 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



dry. An open shed located close to the foundry will often be 
found adaptable for the purpose. The work to be cleaned is 
placed on the table or car and the operator, properly protected by 
hood and gloves, directs the sand at the object, occasionally 
stopping to shift the castings so as to reach all sides. 

In installations of this sort no special provision is made to re- 
cover the sand or to arrest the dust. 




Fig. 143 — Dust Hood without Respirator. 



In selecting the location of the Sand Blast Department, it is 
always well to place it so that castings may go to it and be re- 
moved with the least delay. It is necessary to the saving of 
time that all unnecessary motions be eliminated. 

It is well to remark here that the operator should not at any 
time kink or bend the hose in order to shut off the sand. This not 
only destroys the hose very quickly and causes the sand to pack, 
but causes a decided loss in power. When sand blasting operation 
ceases, it is desirable that no sand under pressure remain in the 
hose and for that reason the shut-off valve is placed at the inlet 
end of the hose. The perpetration of pranks with the sand blast 
should not be permitted as it is dangerous. 



SAND BLASTING 



181 



Another method quite often resorted to involves the construc- 
tion of a special room, or small building, of either metal or wood, 
and devoted solely to sand blasting operations. In such instances 
it is not usually the case that all refinements are embodied, such 
as sand conveying system, mechanical ventilation, etc. This rep- 
resents a step in the right direction, but the author ventures the 




Fig. 143 -A — Dust Hood with Respirator. 



opinion that the 'home-built' sand blast room, generally lack- 
ing in certain conveniences, usually costs its builder as much or 
very nearly as much in the initial outlay as the carefully planned 
special rooms, supplied by manufacturers, having all conven- 
iences. It is obvious that the greater convenience afforded by 
the latter is bound to result in a superior product and a saving 
in the cost for doing the work. 

A typical sand blast room as supplied by the sand blast equip- 
ment manufacturer is shown in Fig. 145. 



1 82 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



In this room the sand is blown through the grated floor to 
the elevator boot in the bottom of the pit. From the pit it is 
raised to a sand separating machine, which at one operation re- 
moves all large particles that would clog the nozzles and the 
fine dust and disintegrated sand which have no abrasive value, 
delivering them to a waste bin. 




Fig. 144 — Respirator. 




Fig. 14s — Sand Blast Room. 



The usable material is delivered to a storage bin located 
overhead. 

The dust-laden air is drawn downward away from the work 
and the operator's head, through the grated floor by means of 
suction pipes beneath, from where it is carried to the dust 
arrester, all dust removed, and the cleaned air again introduced 
into the room through the ceiling. 

The air being used over and over again constant temperature 
is assured as well as dry air. 



SAND BLASTING 



183 



Still another type of room is shown in Fig. 146. In this room 
the handling of the sand and dust is automatic. The sand blast 
machine is submerged below a grated floor through which the 




Fig. 146 — Sand Blast Room with Gravity Feed to Machine 

sand falls into a chute or hopper feeding the sand blast machine 
by gravity. 

Ventilation is secured through a suction hood extending across 
one end of the room. 




Fig. 147 



1 84 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



Records of Performance. Fig 147 shows a large cylinder 
casting with a number of cored spaces placed on a car ready for 
cleaning by the sand blast. Fig. 147A shows this same casting 
after cleaning. Time required, 50 minutes. 




Fig. 147-A 



In Figs. 148 and 148A is shown a large cast-iron annealing 
box before and after cleaning by the sand blast. The time pre- 
viously required for cleaning this casting by hand was 30 hours ; 
by air, 4 hours. 




Fig. 148 



SAND BLASTING 



I8 5 



Some idea of the saving effected by the sand blast in cleaning 
castings may be gained when it is understood that the company 
casting annealing boxes was able to reduce the cleaning force 
from 19 to 9 men. 









^^^F" 




1 


Mi 


P*^ ^ . ;■. ^ :|flK| : 


IsPlm^r. "'■ 


■**"&# ~ 


,- v-^-%^* ' ^™ *^ 


5-4* ■- ■ 


lw 






"•mm 












"** ^ 


— — *«*■;** 








HHTii 1 , ""^ a *^. 


. _ _ 


..*- 




- #^- ,,ij|as» 







Fig. 148-A 




Fig. 149 



Fig. 149 shows a number of gas engine cylinders. Time 
required by the sand blast, 30 minutes; old methods required 
4 hours. This is a particularly difficult job, as the castings 
are intricate and small, and require careful cleaning both 
inside and out. 



1 86 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



Fig. 150 shows a steel ingot mold before and after cleaning. 

In the Open Hearth Steel Foundry of the Prime Steel Company 
the cost for cleaning with the sand blast per ton of good castings 
produced, for a period of 4 months, was 50 cents. The wage paid 
the head sand blast man is 30 cents per ton for all metal charged 




Fig. 150 



into the furnace. About 1,500 pounds of sand blast sand is used 
per day. 

The following items, given at random, on various lines of work, 
will show the comparative time and labor required to clean cast- 
ings by hand, brushing and tumbling, as compared with sand 
blasting. The difference in the character and quality of the work, 
in favor of the sand blast, is as great as in the time and labor 
saved. 

These are actual accomplishments and no mere statements: 



SAND BLASTING 



I8 7 



TIME REQUIRED 



- 


Hand cleaned 


H.P. Sand Blast 




Hr. 


Min. 


Hr. 


Min. 


Mower frames, weight 75 lbs. 12-in. 










cores, 2 to 2j^-in. diam., 3 pieces 


1 


30 




9 


Mower wheel, 28-in. diam., 7 arms, 










ratchet gear cast on one hub, wgt. 










30 lbs., 3 pieces 


1 






6 


50 x 60-in. pulley-weight 3,800 lbs. 


10 




1 




Spur gear, 6-in., 34 teeth, }i-in. 










pitch, 98 pieces 








27 


Oval blades, cored work, wgt. 5 lbs., 










16 pieces. 


2 






20 


Aluminum gear, case, 10-in. diam., 










16-in. long, 24 pieces 


2 






24 


Safe base plate, Manganese Iron, 










24 ins. high, 12 ins. across top, 24 










ins. across base, wgt. 250 lbs., hav- 










ing 4 cores 4x6 ins. 


2 






4 


Door frames for fire safes, one 24 x 










36 ins., four 12 x 36 ins. 


2 


25 




20 


Miscellaneous gray iron castings, 










wgt. 600 lbs. 


2 






15 


Boring mill head, weight 7,200 lbs., 










with 9 cores, ranging from 6 to 18 










ins. diam. 


15 




1 




Steel gear, 5,K-in. diam., 8 arms, 7- 










in. face, i^-in. pitch, wgt. 1,700 










lbs. 


2 days 




2 




Air compressor cylinder, wgt. 3,500 










lbs., water jacketed, 32 cores 


6 






22 


Steel spur gear, 20-in., i^-in. pitch 


10 




3 




Steel pipe cast, wgt. 910 lbs. 


5 






30 


Annealing pit, 12-ft. outside length, 










10-ft. inside length, 3-ft. inside 










depth, 4-ft. inside width, wgt. 










12,000 lbs. 


5 days 




7 




Steel pinion, wgt. 3^ tons, pinion 










teeth set in V shape 


25 




6 




Printing press casting, wgt. 22 tons, 










combination cores and straight 










work, pieces weighing from 30 lbs. 










to 1 ton 






10 





188 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



• 


Hand 


Cleaned 


H. P. Sand 


Blast 




Hr. 


Mirt. 


Hr. 


Min. 


Machine frame, wgt. i ton, 8 x 12 










ft., combination cored and 










straight work 


2 






30 


Plate wheels, with bevel gear cast on 










one side, wgt. 12 lbs., 4 pieces, for- 










merly rumbled, after which the 










teeth required filing to assure 










bevel meshing into the pinion, fil- 










ing alone required 10 mins. each 










piece 








4 


Journal Boxes, wgt. 60 lbs., 90 pieces, 










rumbling 


2 


16 


1 


30 


Automobile castings, 868 pieces 






2 


30 



Miscellaneous Uses for the Sand Blast. As stated in the 
opening paragraph the sand blast may be used for other work 
than that of cleaning castings. As the process involved is very 
much akin to that of cleaning castings, the actual use will only 
be touched upon here. 

Sand blasting forgings in place of pickling to remove the scale 
has decided advantages. 

It does away with shop fumes and the bother of the pickling 
department. Pickled forgings must be washed to neutralize the 
pickling acid remaining on the forgings. 

Quite often the washing is done carelessly and the result is 
that when machining is done the acid quickly destroys the edge 
of the cutting tool and a lot of time is wasted. If the forgings 
are not used immediately, they rust very quickly, due to the acid. 

Above all, the sand blast is quicker and does a better job. 

Structural steel and iron work is usually best cleaned of rust, 
scale, grease, etc., by the sand blast, and it has been found that 
the paint on sand blasted structural steel work wears so much 
longer that it represents an ultimate reduction in the cost for 
painting, and in addition the work is more attractive. The sand 
blast is a decidedly quicker method than that of scraping or 
hammering. 



SAND BLASTING 1 89 

Structural steel, subject to corrosion from sulphurous gases, 
is best cleaned by the sand blast, as it is able to penetrate the 
smallest crevices, both inside latticed columns over all surfaces, 
girders, stringers, caps and base plates. 

Workers in silver, brass and aluminum, as well as manufacturers 
of hardware of various kinds, desiring to give a frosted or matted 
finish to the work can employ the sand blast advantageously. 

Metal ware, such as bath tubs, sinks and kitchen utensils are 
better prepared for enameling by the use of the sand blast. 

One of the most profitable applications of the sand blast is in 
the cleaning of metal joints for brazing or welding, both before 
and after welding. 

Automobile bodies and similar items of manufacture are com- 
monly prepared for painting, enameling and varnishing by the 
sand blast. 



190 COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 

TABLE XLIII 
HOSE SAND BLAST MACHINES 



No. 


Sand 

Capacity 

Lbs. 


Erected 

Dimensions 

Ins. 


Weight 

Net 


Lbs. 
Shipping 


i 


1,000 


24 x 33 x 58 


650 


800 


2 


2,000 


30 x 39 x 68 


1,000 


1,200 


3 


3,000 


36 x 49 x 70 


1,200 


1,400 


4 


4,000 


40 x 51 x 72 


i>350 


i,550 


*5 


4,000 


40 x 5 1 x 72 


1,425 


1,750 


6 


6,000 


48 x 59 x 78 


1,650 


2,000 


*7 


6,ooo 


48 x 59 x 78 


1,800 


2,150 



Sizes 5 and 7 are equipped with two nozzles for two-man operation. 

XLIV 
AIR SEPARATORS 





DIMENSIONS IN INCHES 


Size No. 












A 


B 


C 


D 


1 


6 


28 


1 


1 


2 


8 


30 


iA 


iH 


3 


10 


36 


iA 


iH 


4 


10 


38 


*A 


iA 


5 


10 


40 


iA 


iA 


6 


12 


42 


2 


2 


7 


14 


44 


2 


2 


8 


14 


60 


3 


3 



SAND BLASTING 

TABLE XLV 
SAND BLAST BARRELS 



191 



No. 


No. of 
Noz- 
zles 


Diam. 

of 
Barrel 

Ins. 


Length 

of 

Barrel 

Ins. 


R. P. M. 

of 

Barrel 


H. P. 

Required 

by 

Barrel 


Wgt. 


Cu. Ft. Air Used 


1 


1 


24 


30 


2^ 


iX 


3,200 


See Table on page 


2 


1 


30 


30 


*y* 


l# 


4,100 


167 for Air Consump- 


3 


2 


36 


36 


2^ 


2 


5,100 


tion with various size 


4 


3 


30 


36 


i x A 


2 


3,500 


Nozzles and multi- 


5 


4 


42 


48 


i*A 


3 


8,000 


ply by number of 


6 


5 


54 


60 


* X A 


5 


10,500 


Nozzles. 



TABLE XLVI 
ROTATING SAND BLAST TABLE MACHINES 



No. 


Diameter of 

Table 

Ft. 


No. 
Nozzles 


H. P. 
Required to 
Drive Table 


Approximate 

Weights 

Lbs. 


1 


6 


2 


1 


5,000 


2 


7 


3 


iH 


6,000 


3 


8 


3 


iA 


7,000 


4 


10 


4 


2 


9,000 


5 


12 


4 


2*/Z 


11,000 



192 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 







TABLE XLVII 










SAND SEPARATORS 










OVER-ALL DIMENSIONS 




Approx. 
Air Con- 


No. 


Type 








Weight 


sumption 






Length 


Width 


Height 


Lbs. 


Cu. Ft. 






Ins. 


Ins. 


Ins. 




per Min. 
at 80 Lbs. 


i 


Tripod- Portable 


64 


30 


40 


150 


25 


i-A 


Post-Stationary 


28 


28 


34 


90 


25 


2 


Floor-Stationary 


61 


36 


40K 


450 


35 



NOTE — Screens of varying mesh can be used. 

TABLE XLVIII 
SAND DRIERS 



No. 


Height 

Over All 

Ins. 


Height 

Floor to 

Top Fire 

Box 


Diameter 

of Hopper 

at Top 

Ins. 


Diameter 

of Hopper 

at Bottom 

Ins. 


Diameter 

of Base 

Ins. 


Weight 
Lbs. 


1 
2 


47 

48 


20 

18 


37 

48 


29 

37 


24 
30 


800 
1,400 



SAND BLASTING 



193 



TABLE XLIX 

DUST EXHAUSTING SYSTEM SHOWN IN FIG. 139 
SIZES FOR NUMBERS 1, 2, 3 AND 4 SAND BLAST 



Size 



Shell 

Diameter 

Ins. 



Cu. Ft. 

Per Min. 



PULLEY 



Diameter 
Ins. 



Face 
Ins. 



Speed 



Brake 
H. P. 



OPERATING ONE BARREL 


2 


17 


649 


3 


2 l A 


3,070 


0.71 


OPERATING TWO BARRELS 


4 


25 


i,590 


6 


4 


2,030 


1.74 


OPERATING THREE BARRELS 


5 


31 


2,375 


7 


AA 


1,655 


2-5 




c 


>IZES FOR NUMBER 5 SAND ] 

OPERATING ONE BARREL 


BLAST 




4 


25 


1,590 


6 


4 


2,030 


i-74 


OPERATING TWO BARRELS 


5 


31 


2,375 


7 


\Vi 


1,655 


2.5 


OPERATING THREE BARRELS 


6 


37 


3,38o 


8 


5K 


1,400 


3 69 




S 


IZES FOR NUMBER 6 SAND 1 

OPERATING ONE BARREL 


BLAST 




5 


31 


2,375 


7 


A l A 


1,655 


2.5 


OPERATING TWO BARRELS 


6 


37 


3,380 


8 


VA 


1,400 


369 


OPERATING THREE BARRELS 


8 


5i 


5,820 


10 


VA 


1.065 


6.35 



194 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



TABLE L 

DUST EXHAUSTING AND ARRESTING SYSTEM ILLUSTRATED 

IN FIG. 140 





exhauster 


ARRESTER 


barrel sizes 


Size 
No. 


Dimensions 


Size 
No. 


Dimensions 




E 


F 


G 


H 






Ins. 


Ins. 




Ins. 


Ins. 


Numbers i, 2, 3 and 4 Barrels 














For one barrel 


2 


6 


17 


5i 


48 


64 


For two barrels 


4 


9 


21 


52 


60 


82 


For three barrels 


5 


11 


3i 


53 


66 


90 


Number 5 Barrel 














For one barrel 


4 


9 


25 


52 


60 


82 


For two barrels 


5 


11 


31 


53 


66 


90 


For three barrels 


6 


13 


37 


54 


78 


107 


Number 6 Barrel 














For one barrel 


5 


11 


31 


53 


66 


90 


For two barrels 


6 


13 


37 


54 


78 


107 


For three barrels 


8 


17 


51 


55 


94 


127 



TABLE LI 

DUST EXHAUSTING AND ARRESTING SYSTEM SHOWN IN 

FIG. 141 





EXHAUSTER 


ARRESTER 




Size 
Num- 
ber 


Dimensions 


Size 
Num- 
ber 


Dimensions 




BARREL SIZES 


E 
Ins. 


F 
Ins. 


G 
Ins. 


H 

Ins. 


Width 
Ins. 


Numbers i, 2, 3 and 4 Barrels 

For one Barrel 

For two Barrels 

For three Barrels 

Number 5 Barrel 

For one Barrel 

For two Barrels 

For three Barrels 

Number 6 Barrel 

For one Barrel 

For two Barrels 


2 

4 
5 

4 
5 
6 

5 
6 
8 


6 

9 
11 

9 
11 

13 

11 
13 
17 


17 
21 

31 

52 
53 
54 

53 
54 
55 


51 
52 
53 

25 
31 
37 

3i 
37 
5i 


68 
108 
120 

108 
120 

88 

120 

88 

140 


96 
102 
126 

102 
126 
144 

126 
144 
144 


60 

78 
78 

78 
78 
96 

78 
96 
96 



CHAPTER XI 
COMPRESSED AIR USES IN THE MACHINE SHOP 

The machine shop is perhaps one of the most fertile fields for 
the application of compressed air power. The opening up of 
new avenues for its application and the creation of new appli- 
ances is almost an unending daily occurrence. 

Beginning with the air hoist which plays a conspicuous part as 
a time and labor saver, and on through the standard manufac- 
tured line of pneumatic devices, there is scarcely one that does 
not find its particular niche in the machine shop. 

The past few years especially have witnessed a marked ad- 
vance in the economical application of compressed air. Com- 
pressed air has never enjoyed a reputation for economy — that 
is, mechanical economy as distinguished from commercial econ- 
omy. That it is being so widely used is due almost entirely to 
the fact that no other power medium would accomplish the same 
results. If, for instance, electricity could have been applied to 
the operation of chipping hammers, and other tools for which 
compressed air is used, there might have been a marked saving 
in the operating cost. But, owing to the mechanical difficulties, 
electricity cannot be successfully applied to work of this kind 
and compressed air, consequently, remains the motive power par 
excellence of the many portable labor-saving tools in the machine 
shop. 

Air Hoists. The air hoist is undoubtedly a more efficient and 
economical helper for the machine hand than manual help, 
which in most shops requires an order from the foreman and 
therefore entails a great loss in non-productive time. How often 
have you seen several men tugging and straining to place a piece 
of work by hand for a machine tool, with the attending danger of 
injury and the stoppage of other work for perhaps ten to twenty 
minutes while 'lending a hand'. All of these annoyances and 
the most of the expense may be and is overcome in a great many 
shops by putting air lifts over all lathes above 20 inches swing 
and over all planers, shapers, drilling machines and drill presses, 
working on pieces too heavy for one man to lift. 

195 



196 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



The air hoist is so quick and satisfactory in its action as to 
preclude the necessity for any comparison with chain blocks or 
chain rigs. 

A cheap form of air lift is the cylinder type, already described 
in Chapter VI, suspended from a trolley traveling on a swing- 
ing arm, the cylinder being about four^feet^long, and for all 




Fig. 151 — Utilizing a pneumatic drill for 
assembling motor fly-wheel to crank shaft 
flange. 

lathes below 36 inches swing or planers 30 x 30 it need not be 
more than 6 inches in diameter and yet lift 2,000 lbs. with an air 
pressure of 80 lbs. 

The motor type of hoist is the most desirable for all lifts where 
the lifts are of extended heights or when the head-room is small. 

Chucks, face plates and steady rests can be lifted from the 
floor and placed in position by the aid of the air hoist in less time 
than by hand, and work can be lifted and placed against the face 
plate or in the chuck with more satisfaction and in less time than 
by any manner of ' blocking up ' in vogue with the helper system. 



IN THE MACHINE SHOP 



197 



Pneumatic Drill. The pneumatic drill is of special value in 
the machine shop for all classes of reaming, tapping and drilling 
where the work cannot be conveniently carried to the drill press, 
and for all classes of breast drill work. These machines are also 
frequently resorted to for operating special boring bars, and in 
emergency cases for independent drive of a machine tool, where 
the horse power required is within its capacity. 

Nearly all shops have more or less affixing of name plates to 
completed machines. These require the drilling and tapping of 




Fig. 152 



holes in the machine. For this class of work the type of machine 
shown in Fig. 64 is particularly adapted. 

A noteworthy example of the great saving in time and labor, 
also the convenience in operating a pneumatic drill, was the drill- 
ing and tapping of 16 half-inch holes on a convex surface of a 
large cylinder. The size of the cylinder and the location of the 
holes made it very inconvenient to do the work under a drill 
press. These sixteen holes were drilled and tapped with a pneu- 
matic breast drill, pieces to be bolted on were applied and cap 
screws screwed down tight in a total time of 45 minutes. 

In driving in cylinder head and steam chest studs of 7 /8 inches 
diameter a distance of I 5/16 inches it required but 15 seconds 
per stud. Compare this performance with hand work. 



198 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



In the shops of the H. H. Franklin Manufacturing Company, 
Syracuse, N. Y., the pneumatic drill is applied to a number of 
uses to facilitate and quicken production, reduce cost and lighten 
the labor for the operator. 

This company manufactures automobiles. Automobiles are no- 
torious for the great many screws, nuts, studs, etc., employed in 
their assembly. These screws and studs, mean drilling, tapping 




Fig. 153 



and reaming of holes. Mr. George D. Babcock, Production Man- 
ager, in the search for means to quicken assembly and produc- 
tion, evolved the practices which are herein described, employing 
for the purpose standard manufactured pneumatic drills. 

Fig. 151 depicts the process of assembling the motor fly-wheel 
to the flange of the crank shaft. Large bolts, with slotted heads 
make the joint. This is a screw driver job. 

In applying the pneumatic drill to this work, it was suspended 
overhead in a gimbal which allows the tool to tip freely in any 
direction, the gimbal being attached to the end of a lever which 
is weighted at the other end to balance the entire apparatus. 



IN THE MACHINE SHOP 



199 




Fig. 154 

The fork in which the balancing lever is fulcrumed extends down 
from a small traveling trolley. The spindle of the pneumatic 
drill is extended by means of a flexible shaft which' carries the 
special socket for the various tools. To guard against overtight- 
ening of the screw or bolt a friction clutch has been introduced 




Fig. 15s — A special pneumatic device for clipping off bolt ends. 



200 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



between the machine and flexible shaft, so that when the right 
tension of the screw or bolt is attained, it will instantly allow 
the shaft to stop. 

Two light straps lead from the operator's hands to the ends of 
the cross-lever for operating the controlling air valve. A rack 
has also been provided for conveniently carrying the auxiliary 
sockets required for this particular job. 




Fig. 156 



In Fig. 152 are shown a variety of special sockets and the 
several pieces for which each is adapted. 

Fig. 153 shows the pneumatic drill for driving home wood 
screws. 

Fig. 154 shows the operation of driving on front axle spring 
clip nuts. 

In Fig. 155 is shown a compressed air operated, compound 
lever device for clipping off the projecting ends of bolts. 

Fig. 156 shows the operation of running down nuts in assem- 
bling cylinder half of crank case to main half. 



IN THE MACHINE SHOP 201 

The savings effected by some of these special compressed air 
applications are stated to be as follows: 

1. Driving front axle spring clip nuts as compared with hand 
wrench, 56%. 

2. All engine studs, screws and nuts, 71%. 

3. Rear axle tubes to rear axle gear case, 41%. 

4. Transmission studs and screws, 68%. 

5. Steel angle iron wood screws and other wood screwing on the 

sill, 75%. 

6. Bolt clipping, 56%. 

One of the tools of the pneumatic drill family, the grinder and 
buffer, can be used to good advantage and save both time and 




Fig. 157 — A pneumatic drill rigged in a swing 
for lapping cylinders. 

labor for polishing side and main rods and other work of a similar 
nature. 

It is apparent from the foregoing that the pneumatic drill lends 
itself readily to rigging up for special applications. 

Fig. 157 shows it rigged up in a swing for lapping small cylin- 
ders. 

Fig. 158 shows a pneumatic drill used for seating studs in cyl- 
inders in a large pump factory. Swinging wall arms have been 
provided as shown in Fig. 159 from which the tool is suspended 
and counterweighted and the drill is moved from arm to arm 
as may be required. 

Fig. 160 shows a drill rigged up as a motor to operate a circular 
saw for cutting belt slots through floors, making floor repairs, and 
also for machine boxing purposes. 



202 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



Fig. 161 shows a drill being used for recentering shafts, which 
have been roughed out and cut off to approximate lengths and 
are ready for the final turning and grinding. The universal lathe 




Fig. 158 — Pneumatic drill applied to seating cylinder studs. 



chuck is connected by three rods which serve as guides for the 
drill, with a casting at the back through which the feed screw 
passes. The drill chuck fits a central bushing in the large 
chuck, insuring accurate centering. The chuck is quickly se- 
cured on the end of the work by the usual socket chuck-wrench. 



IN THE MACHINE SHOP 



203 




Fig. 159 — Assembly Department of a large pump works. Swinging 
wall arms have been provided for suspending pneumatic stud 
seating tools and other pneumatic devices. 




Fig. 160 — Pneumatic drill rigged as a portable 
saw for cutting belt slots, repairing floors, etc. 



204 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



The operator controls the air with one hand by the throttle 
handle shown while turning the feed wheel with the other. 

Fig. 162 shows a drill being used as a motor for operating a 
portable boring bar. 



■'■■■'.- "\ 






' 


IB 




' Tf 


' : ,:■';"■' 






















w?-' 




\ 









Fig. 161 — Recentering shafts 
with a pneumatic drill. 



svj* r-'jk* 


" ' 1 


. y 

_J*"" """"v ■ *f ■ * '_-- .... 


*'■■■ :> * 


**^ilisj 


H'-I 



Fig. 162 — Pneumatic drill employed with a special 
jig for reboring cylinders. 



Fig. 163 illustrates the use of portable pneumatic drills on the 
assembly floor. 

Fig. 164 applying the pneumatic drill to otherwise inaccessible 
work. 

Fig- J 65. The pneumatic drill on this class of work eliminates 
special jigs required with the regular drill press. 



IN THE MACHINE SHOP 



205 




Fig. 163 — Drilling a bed-plate on the assembly floor. 

Chipping Hammers. The pneumatic chipping hammer, for 
chipping and calking, is employed profitably in a great many 
shops. 

One particular application is the chipping of oil grooves in 
cross-heads. In one case, requiring the cutting of two diagonal 




Fig. 164 — Drilling an otherwise inaccessible hole with a pneumatic 
drill. 



206 ' COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 

grooves, n inches long on the curved shoe of the cross-head, the 
time required was only one minute and 15 seconds. 

In chipping steam cylinder ports, smoothing down cast parts, 
trimming metal lagging, cutting out ' W in angles and many 
other uses, this tool has demonstrated its right to a place in the 
modern machine shop. In the manufacture of shrapnel, it has 
been rigged up for calking the base plates. See Fig. 166. 

Turbine blade riveting is accurately and quickly performed in 
the shops of the Fore River Shipbuilding Corporation by means 
of a pneumatic hammer, as shown in Fig. 167. 




Fig. 165 — The pneumatic drill on 
automobile axle housing work. 

Pneumatic Presses. Very convenient little presses can be 
rigged up for driving mandrels, pressing work and the like. 

In Fig. 168 is shown a pneumatic broaching press designed and 
employed in a large western shop. 

The broaching press is a home-made product of the shop using 
it. It is controlled by a valve, which controls the passage of oil, 
regulating it at will, and preventing surging action due to the 
elasticity of the air. Many different kinds of work are broached 
by this machine. 

The piece to be broached is laid on the supporting collar at the 
top of the upright in the center, the point of the broach entered in 
the work and the ram brought down by admitting air pressure 
through the cylinder above. 



IN THE MACHINE SHOP 



207 






n n iuf .^SHF' > 



Fig. 166-A — Two method? of applying a pneumatic hammer to calking 
base plates in shrapnel. 

The speed of the ram can be varied to suit the needs of the 
piece being broached. The broach is not fastened to the ram, 
but is simply forced through by it and dropped through the 
work onto a cushion. 




Fig. 1C6-B — Two methods of applying a pneumatic hammer to calking 
base plates in shrapnel. 



208 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



Fig. 169 shows a pneumatic device for lapping long cylinders, 
also a product of this shop. 

This machine consists of two vertical rods or uprights, which 
carry both the work-supporting device and the lapping head, so 
that they can be adjusted to almost any position with relation to 
each other. 

The work to be lapped is clamped in place at the bottom and 
the motor-driven lapping head is brought down so that the lap 




Fig. 167 — A pneumatic hammer riveting 
turbine blades in place. 



enters the work. The head carrying the lap is fed up and down 
so as to cover the length of the cylinder bore, at the same time 
the lap is being revolved by the motor. The feeding mechanism 
is controlled entirely by air through the valve shown at the side. 
Chucking Work by Air. This application of compressed air 
promises to become a wide-spread one in modern machine shop 
practice, as a result of the saving it effects in the operation of 
chucking work. 



IN THE MACHINE SHOP 



209 




OK'.'.AN PROCESS PA7 



Fig. 168 — A home-built hydro-pneumatic broach- 
ingj>ress. 



210 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



Most shops already have compressed air available. By using 
it for the operation of chucking, the workman is left free to apply 
all his energy in rapid production. 

Compressed air is easy to regulate, almost instantaneous in its 
action, and at a pressure per square inch of anywhere from 60 to 
100 pounds, provides a source of power fully adequate for the 
requirements of machine tools. 




ORMAY PROCESS "PA 1 



Fig. 169 — A home-built electro-pneumatic 
lapping machine. 



IN THE MACHINE SHOP 



21 I 




Fig. 170 — A large turret lathe equipped with an air operated universal chuck. 

In Fig. 170 is shown a large Turret Lathe equipped with an 
air operated universal chuck for large gear and bushing work. 
The chuck is operated by means of a cylinder shown at the ex- 




Fig. 171 — A master hinge Collet chuck, air operated, applied to a 
small turret lathe. 



212 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



treme left and under the control of the small lever shown just 
below the front of the speed change box. 

These chucks are made in two- and three-jaw types. 




Fig. 172 — An air operated alligator chuck applied to a small turret lathe. 




Fig. 173 — Piping diagram for air chuck. 



Fig. 171 shows an air operated Master Hinge Collet Chuck 
applied to a small Turret Lathe. They are furnished in three- and 
four-jaw types. These chucks are designed to hold round, square 
and hexagon work, such as valve bonnets, nuts, etc. 



IN THE MACHINE SHOP 



213 




Fig. 174 — Assemblies of three types of air chucks. 

Fig. 172 shows a Turret Lathe equipped with an air operated 
Alligator Jaw Chuck. These chucks are intended for holding ir- 
regular-shaped work. 




Fig. 175 — Air operated vise. 



214 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL AVORKER 



In Fig. 173 is shown a general piping diagram of the air- 
operated chuck. Fig. 174 shows the general assembly of three 
types of chucks and their operating mechanisms. 




Fig. 176 — Air operated arbor press. 

In addition, air operated chucks of the following types are 
rapidly coming into use: Releasing Chuck, Milling Machine 
Chuck, Gate Valve Seating Chuck. See Table LII. 

In Fig. 175 is shown an air operated vise, designed for use in 
the assembling department, for use on drill presses, milling ma- 




Fig. 177 — Air operated countershaft. 



IN THE MACHINE SHOP 215 

chines and other places where a vise or chuck is used to hold work 
while being assembled or machined. 

Fig. 176 depicts an air operated arbor press which eliminates 
the slow and tiresome operations of hand work. 

Another use to which air is being put in the machine shop is 
the operation of countershafts. Fig. 177 shows such a counter- 
shaft. Its operation is controlled by two air cylinders under the 
control of a two-way air valve placed in convenient proximity for 
the operator. 



2l6 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



TABLE LI I 
PNEUMATIC CHUCKS 



No. 



Capacity 

(Less False 

Jaws) 

Ins. 



Length 

of Jaws 

Ins. 



Largest 

Outside 

Diameter 

Ins. 



Length 

of Chuck 

Ins. 



Approx- 
imate 

Weight 
Lbs. 





TWO-JAW UNIVERSAL PNEUMATIC 


CHUCKS 




I 


2^ 


2X 


7 


7 


38 


2 


A l A 


3H 


9 


8 


55 


3 


7 


4 


12 


8 


8o 



THREE-JAW UNIVERSAL PNEUMATIC CHUCKS 



MASTER HINGE COLLET PNEUMATIC CHUCKS 



ALLIGATOR PNEUMATIC CHUCKS 



4 


10 




10 


6 


75 


5 


12 




12 


7 


100 


6 


15 


. . . 


15 


7 


140 


7 


18 




18 


8 


165 



8 


iX 




5^ 


\A 


10 


9 


2 




5 3 X 


6A 


24 


10 


3H 




7% 


7Vs 


40 


11 


5 




m 


8 


55 



12 


iH 




4 


5 J A 


10 


13 


2 




5^ 


sa 


25 


14 


3 




5H 


9A 


40 


15 


5 




7X 


10A 


55 



CHAPTER XII 
COMPRESSED AIR USES IN THE FORGE SHOP 

A realization of the benefits to be derived from the uses of com- 
pressed air by the forge shop has been comparatively recent. 
While the slowest of all to take up its use, the forge shops bear 
the distinction of having pioneered in its use, due in part to the 
force of circumstances and partly to a search for some conven- 
ient power for the conduct of many operations peculiar to each 
line of manufacture and calling for the creation of home-built 
special apparatus. 

One of the earliest efforts in the harnessing of compressed air 
to the needs of the forge shop is found in the conversion of steam 
forging hammers to pneumatic operation. 

A typical example is that of the Buffalo Pitts Company, 
Buffalo, N. Y., one of the earliest shops to demonstrate the ad- 
vantages of air operation for forging hammers. They made the 
change primarily because of the fact that the balance of the 
manufacturing plant was operating on electric current. For the 
operation of one big steam hammer, however, they were running 
a battery of high-pressure steam boilers. It was desirable that 
the hammer be electrified and as current could not be applied 
direct, the transmitting power agency, compressed air, was re- 
sorted to. A motor-driven compressor was installed, sufficiently 
large not only to operate this hammer, but many other pneu- 
matic devices. 

Another pioneer in this direction is the Nisqually-Russel Car 
and Locomotive Works of Tacoma, Wash. About five years ago 
(191 2) the city boiler inspector condemned the boiler in this 
plant. It was chiefly used to furnish steam for the large hammer 
shown in Fig. 178. Instead of buying a new boiler the old one was 
converted into a vertical air receiver and a belted-to-motor com- 
pressor installed to furnish power to the hammer. In con- 
verting the steam hammer to compressed air operation the 
action of the inlet and exhaust valves was improved by giving 
them a slight taper. 

217 



218 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



In Fig. 179 is shown the compressor plant. It is stated that 
$50 a month is a liberal estimate for the power consumption of 
the compressor, whereas the fixed charges under the old system 
were $62.50 per month for the licensed fireman at $2.50 per day 




Fig. 178 — Steam Forging Hammer converted to pneumatic operation. 

and $31.25 for 12^ tons of coal at $2.50 per ton, making a total 
of $93.75 or a saving in favor of air operation of $43.75 a month. 
In addition the air is used for operating other tools, therefore 
the saving is in reality greater than the figures show. On the 
above basis, however, the saving per year in this plant is $525. 
This company further stated that aside from the saving there is 
a decided advantage in the increased efficiency of the hammer, as 
they were only able to carry 90 pounds pressure on the boiler and 



IN THE FORGE SHOP 



219 



they figured this gave them about 60 pounds working pressure at 
the hammer. The air, on the other hand, is practically at the 
same pressure at the hammer as in the receiver, and they got 
fully 90 pounds on the piston. It is further stated that "the 
air is quicker, and although not quite so elastic as the steam 
(?), is nevertheless very satisfactory." 




Fig. 179 — The compressor plant for operating the forging hammer shown in Fig. 173. 

A further saving might be claimed in the expense of handling 
the ashes which they had to cart away. In so far as the item of 
cost for boiler feed water is concerned, this is about offset by the 
consumption of the cooling jackets of the compressor. 

In Fig. 180 is shown a pneumatic drop press designed for 
stamping sheet metal hot. Sizes range up to 46 x 72 inches, 
face of hammer. The power consumption ranges from 60 cubic 
feet of free air per minute for the smallest size, to 200 cubic 
feet for the largest at a pressure of 90 pounds. 

Fig. 1 80A shows another pneumatic drop hammer. The design 
of this tool eliminates the board, friction rollers, gears, clutches 



220 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



and other such appurtenances which mark the ordinary steam 
drop hammer. Compressed air at a pressure of 60 to 100 pounds is 
required, striking a blow of between 250 and 350 pounds. The air 
consumption is but 3 cubic feet of free air per minute at 60 pounds 

pressure, or about 5 cubic feet 
at 100 pounds pressure. 

The Buffalo Foundry and 
Machine Company, of Buf- 
falo, N. Y., are now supplying 
their Bell Hammers for com- 
pressed air operation. Fig. 
181 shows a typical plant, 
consisting of the hammer, a 
receiver and short-belt motor- 
driven compressor, complete 
with necessary valves and 
gauges. 

These hammers operate on 
pressure from 60 to 100 
pounds per square inch. 

It is claimed for these 
outfits great flexibility and 
the same sensitive control as 
obtained from steam ham- 
mers. The force, position and 
rapidity of the blow is under 
absolute control and can be 
varied instantly at the will of 
the operator. 

Power is only used when 
work is actually being done 
and in forging the work is in 
direct proportion to the 
power being used. Maximum 
power is always available when the forging is at the highest 
temperature and, therefore, in the most plastic condition. 

These hammers are built in a wide range of sizes and types for 
all kinds of shaping and forging work. 

Figs. 182 and 183 show samples of work done on these 
hammers. 




Fig. 180 — A Pneumatic Drop Press 



IN THE FORGE SHOP 



221 



Air and Steam Operation Compared. Compressed air is 
lively and instantly available for use, so that there is no delay 
when starting up in the morning or any time it may be wanted. 

Lubrication is simplified. When starting up the steam hammer 
it is usually cold and the steam condenses, the lubrication is 




Fig. 180-A — A pneumatic drop hammer for forming work. 



partly washed out, and there is a lot of water dripping, so that you 
cannot put a forging under the hammer at once. If you do, the 
dripping water is likely to spatter and scald the operator. Nor 
can the forging always be left in the fire, waiting for the water to 
stop dripping, because it is liable to burn, and all this happens 
several times a day unless the hammer is in continuous use. 



222 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



Aside from its application to forging hammers and the usual 
line of small portable pneumatic tools and hoists, the use of 




Fig. 1 8 1— A complete pneumatic Forging Plant. 



.^g******?.:-" '■'■-' '•'■'*' m xvi$89&x":''' 














it 


m 


[3! 






ill: ,. jit 




4'M*STECL8iLL£ T 2FT.L0KG 
4%CARB0NWDCHT!06U55 









Fig. 182 — Sample of pneumatic forge hammer work. 




Fig. 183 — Sample of pneumatic forge hammer work. 

compressed air, in the forge shop, as already stated is to operate 
special devices often of home manufacture. 

Fig. 184 shows a compressed air operated machine which has 
been manufactured for some years for the forging of bits and 
shanks on steel used for drilling rock. 



IN THE FORGE SHOP 



223 




Fig. 184 — A rock drill sharpening machine applied to forging bolt 
heads. 

One shop appreciating its adaptability to other work, is em- 
ploying it for the forging of odd shape-and-size bolt heads by 
the use of special dies which it manufactured for the purpose. 
This machine has an up-and-down moving vise to hold dies and 




Fig. 185 — Dies and dolly for forging bolt heads and sample of stock 
and finished work. 



224 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



a horizontal hammer for operating a dolly to force the heated 
metal back into the dies for shaping while the vise grips the 
shank of the bolt. 

Both the vise or vertical hammer and the horizontal hammer 
are operated by air controlled by a central three-way throttle. 
Moving the throttle lever part way lowers the vertical hammer, 
moving it still further sets the dolly working. Returning the 




Fig. 1 86 — A rock drill sharpening machine applied to 
nosingshrapnel. 



lever to normal position raises the vertical hammer. The ver- 
tical hammer may be operated for swaging or squeezing indepen- 
dent of the horizontal hammer. 

Fig. 185 shows a set of dies for forging round head bolts and 
samples of bolt stock and finished bolt head. The capacity on 
this particular size stock, ij4 inches, was 2 per minute. 

It often happens that a need arises for special sizes of rivets, 
or stock of certain sizes is out. For supplying this want the 



IN THE FORGE SHOP 



225 




Fig. 187 — Still another converted hammer. 



machine shown fills a real want. The process of forging is the 
same as for bolts. Different dies are required for different sizes 
and in the case of rivets different dollies for the various types of 
rivet heads. 

Fig. 186 shows a modification of this machine adapted to the 
work of nosing shrapnel. The horizontal hammer has been 
eliminated and the work is performed entirely by the vertical 
hammer. 

Fig. 187 shows still another converted steam hammer in the 
repair shop of a large contractor. Note the blow gun for removing 
scale from the hammer faces. 

This contractor was operating all equipment on electric current 
purchased from a service company and therefore found it simpli- 
fied his problem to operate his forging hammer on air. 



CHAPTER XIII 

COMPRESSED AIR USES IN BOILER SHOPS AND 
STRUCTURAL STEEL PLANTS 

Out of the field of brawn and awkwardness, into the realm of 
brain and science. Such is the story of the progress made during 
a period of years, comparatively brief, in boiler and structural 
shop practice. - 

This entire change may be said to be due to the advent of 
pneumatic devices for chipping, calking, drilling, riveting, punch- 
ing and a hundred and one other uses. They have liberated these 
plants from the methods of slow and costly manual labor and 
placed them on a plane equal to the refined methods of machine 
shop practice, and it may be truly said that today, plate steel, 
beams and girders are machined into tanks, boilers, automobile 
trucks, bridges, cranes and what-not, even as much so as cast- 
iron, brass and steel are machined into engines, lathes, pumps, etc. 

The uses of pneumatic tools in this division of the manufacturing 
plant may be grouped according to the service performed, as 
follows : 

Forming or Pressing Riveting 

Bending or Shaping Chipping 

Punching Trimming 

Drilling Calking 

Grinding Welding Flues and Tubes 

Reaming 

Forming or Pressing. Forming or pressing until compara- 
tively recently has been considered the legitimate field of the 
steam operated forming press, but, like in the forge shop, a reali- 
zation of the advantages of compressed air for operating such 
presses has led to a number of transformations in such machinery 
and the appearance on the market of presses of great simplicity 
covering a wide range of capacities and work, designed especially 
for compressed air operation. 

Many up-to-date shops with special problems have even gone 
so far as to construct special compressed air operated machines 
to meet these problems. 

226 



IN BOILER SHOPS AND STRUCTURAL STEEL PLANTS 227 

Bending or Shaping. This is a class of work heretofore largely 
performed by hand or by steam operated tools and at times in 
the forge shop over the anvil. Today it is under the spell of 
compressed air and we find manufacturers building machines 
having in mind the requirements of this power, for bending pipe, 
bars, angle iron and other material to all shapes, turns and 
twists. 

Where large quantities of various given shapes are required it 
is not uncommon to see a battery of these machines, each oper- 
ating on a different class of work. 




Fig. 188 — Portable pneumatic pipe bending machine. 

In Fig. 1 88 is shown a portable machine designed for bending 
pipe. The dies are changeable, making it possible to handle an 
almost unlimited variety of shapes. 

It will handle any size pipe up to 2 >£ inches cold and without 
filling. It does not flatten or split the pipe. Tests show that it 
will put a 90-degree angle in a 2-inch pipe in two minutes. It 
operates on an air pressure of 80 to 100 pounds. Weight with 
the following set of dies: ^4-6 inches radius 

1 - 7 inches radius 
\% - S}4 inches radius 
\ Y A - 10 inches radius 

2 - 13 inches radius 
is 1,500 pounds. 



228 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



While sold for pipe bending, it may also be applied to the 
bending of various shapes of bar iron, light angles, etc., by the use 
of special dies, readily made in most any shop. 

Hoisting. Air hoists are employed for lifting the heavy plates 
and placing them in position on the laying-off table, in the bend- 




Fig. 189 — A convenient portable pneumatic 
punch. 



ing rolls, on the shears and punches and for lifting the various 
courses into position for riveting. 

Punching. The portable pneumatic punch shown in Fig. 189 
has come into extensive use for the many special jobs of punching 
holes which, due either to immobility of the work or peculiar 
location, cannot readily be handled in the stationary punches. 

Fig. 190 shows one of these portable pneumatic punches at 
work in a large railroad shop. It is used for all kinds of odd jobs. 

Figs. 191 and 192 illustrate portable combination pneumatic 
yoke riveters and punches adapted for special work. 



IN BOILER SHOPS AND STRUCTURAL STEEL PLANTS 229 

Drilling and Reaming. The pneumatic drill comes in for 
all classes of drilling, reaming, tapping, running in stay bolts, 
rolling flues, grinding, etc. 

Examples of performance: 

Thirty seconds was the average time required by a pneumatic 
drill in expanding copper locomotive tubes I 7/8 inches outside 
diameter. The operating pressure was 70 pounds. 




Fig. 190 — A portable pneumatic punch in the Meadow 
Shops of the Pennsylvania Railroad. 

Fifty-two 5/16-inch holes drilled in 70 minutes through the 
24-inch end plate furnace flange of a marine boiler, furnace being 
in position. Hand work required 8}4 hours. 

In drilling test or tell-tale holes in stay bolts, two men with 
two of the small pneumatic breast drills drilled 140 stay bolts 
per hour. 

In one instance two men with two drills tapped out the holes 
and screwed in 700 stay bolts in a fire box in 14 hours. 

Figs. 193 to 203 inclusive show various applications of pneu- 
matic drills. 



230 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 




Fig. i9i — A combination pneumatic yoke 
riveter and punch specially adapted for 
channel and angle work. 




Fig. 192 — A combination pneumatic yoke riveter and punch for work 
in close quarters. 



IN BOILER SHOPS AND STRUCTURAL STEEL PLANTS 23 1 




Fig. 193 — A pneumatic drill at work drilling and 
reaming holes on a large battleship. 



Riveting. In riveting work, the pneumatic hammer is 
applied to all classes of riveting, giving more tightly drawn-up 
joints with unmutilated rivet heads, to say nothing of the time 
and labor saving. 




Fig. 194 — Pneumatic drill at work reaming holes in car 
frames in r the plant of the J. G. Brill Co., Philadelphia. 



232 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 




Fig. 195 — Running up K-inch nuts on car corner straps with a 
pneumatic drill in the Collingwood-Ashtabula Shops, N. Y. 
Central R. R. 




Fig. 196 — Reaming f£ inch 
holes in steel freight car — 
Scully Yards, Penna. Lines 
West of Pittsburgh. 





Fig. 198 — Tightening bolts 
in guard rail on Louisville 
Bridge. 



Fig. 197 — Drilling rail-bonding holes. This 
shows the Williamsburg Bridge across the East 
River, between New York and Brooklyn, in 
course of construction. 



IN BOILER SHOPS AND STRUCTURAL STEEL PLANTS 233 




Fig. 199 — Boring wooden end sills for passenger 
coaches. 

In riveting on a standard fire box leg containing 253 ^-inch 
rivets, a pneumatic hammer drove all the rivets in 9 hours at a 
total cost of $4.32. This same job by hand required 15 hours, 
costing $10.95. 



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Fig. 200 — Close quarter 
drill at work in the Middle- 
town, N. Y., Car Repair 
Shop of the New York, On- 
tario and Western R. R. 



234 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 




Fig. 201 — Drilling and chipping on locomotive repair work. 

In another case 1^4 -inch rivets were driven in a boiler to with- 
stand 360 pounds pressure, at one-third the cost of hand work. 

Figs. 204 to 218 inclusive show various applications of the 
pneumatic riveter. 




Fig. 202 — Drilling and riveting structural steel shapes in a Brook- 
lyn structural works. 



IN BOILER SHOPS AND STRUCTURAL STEEL PLANTS 235 




Fig. 203 — Drilling Fire box in the shops of the Seaboard Air 
Line. 



L 1 




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... _*. 


» 



Fig. 204— Little David Riveter on boiler work in the Murphy 
Boiler Works, New Orleans, La. 



236 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 




Fig. 205 — Riveting angle iron on locomotive running board. 
Rivets X-inch diameter, driven cold with a medium weight 
chipping hammer. 




Fig. 206 — Riveting a locomotive 
boiler. 




00^? "r""""""?^ 



Fig. 207 — Air receiver and tank riveting. 



IN BOILER SHOPS AND STRUCTURAL STEEL PLANTS 237 




Fig. 208 — Assembling automobile axle housings 
with a pneumatic hammer at the plant of the 
Walker-Weiss Axle Co., Flint, Mich. 




Fig. 209 — Riveting together a turret on a large battleship. 



238 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 




Fig. 210 — Driving f-inch rivets 
cold in end piece of coal car. 




Fig. 211 — This illustration shows the application 
of the pneumatic holder-on in riveting work. 




Fig. 212 — Pneumatic riveters at work on a large railroad viaduct. 



IN BOILER SHOPS AND STRUCTURAL STEEL PLANTS 239 




Fig. 213 — Riveting together from slings the head 
frame of a deep mine shaft. 




Fig. 214 — Pneumatic riveter and pneumatic holder-on at work on new Public Ser- 
vice Building, Newark, N. J. Notice the Tee connection in the hose line for feeding 
air to both tools by means of one main hose line. 



240 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



Calking, Trimming and Chipping. The pneumatic hammer 
for calking and trimming seams of boilers and tanks, pipe joints 
and the like is not only more rapid in its action, saving nearly 
two-thirds the time required for hand work, but the resultant 
job is a more uniformly calked joint. This is due to the sustained 
quality and weight of the pneumatic hammer blow as against 
the variable one of even the skilled hand mechanic. 

In chipping metal, cutting off angles and tubes, trimming edges 
and for restricted quarters work, the pneumatic hammer has 
decided advantages. 




Fig. 215 — Hanna Pneumatic Yoke Riveter used on 

automobile work in the H. H. Franklin Mfg. Co's. 

Plant, Syracuse, N. Y. 

In heading over f-inch rivets on differential 

gears, one man is accomplishing the same amount 

of work in one-third the time required by previous 

method with two men. Rivets are driven cold 

thereby completely filling the hole. 

This machine is also used for pressing in bushings. 



IN BOILER SHOPS AND STRUCTURAL STEEL PLANTS 24 1 

It is also extensively used for beading boiler flues. A case is 
on record of 235 2-inch flues being beaded in 2 hours and 10 min- 
utes, a job requiring 10 hours for hand labor. 

In chipping, a 3/8-inch chip has been removed from a boiler 
plate ^2-inch thick at the rate of 7 inches in 48 seconds. 

Tubes of 2^2 -inch diameter have been cut off in 36 seconds, as 
against 2^2 minutes by hand, and in one case 46 tubes were cut 
off, turned over and beaded with the same tool in 1 hour and 45 
minutes, as against 5 hours for the old method. 




Fig. 216 — A Hanna Yoke Riveter in the Plant of 
the Griscom-Russell Co., Massillon, Ohio. 
This machine has a range of 126 inches and exerts 
80 tons pressure on 100 pounds air. It is equipped 
with a special form of stake especially adapted to 
the riveting of small diameter shells. 
The shell shown in the illustration is 30 inch diam. 
x 96 inches long, made of % inch plate; the rivets 
being f inch diam. With two men, comprising 
the operator and rivet heater, 1,500 to 1,800 rivets 
driven per day of 10 hours. The machine had been in 
use about 3 years at the time photograph was taken. 



242 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 





Fig. 217 — A Hanna Pneumatic Yoke Riveter 
in the plant of the General Electric Co., Pitts- 
field, Mass., employed on transformer work. 




Fig. 218 — Imperial Pneumatic Hoists and Pneumatic Yoke Riveter 
used in combination for fabricating structural steel shapes in the 
Lassig Plant of the American Bridge Co., Chicago, 111. 



IN BOILER SHOPS AND STRUCTURAL STEEL PLANTS 243 




Fig. 219 — Chipping a locomotive flue sheet with a 
No. 3 Little David Chipper. 

Calking seams requires about one-third the time. For re- 
calking old seams the pneumatic hammer is ideal. It can be used 
for making a fresh cut on the sheet and the joint recalked in short 
order, giving a perfect repair. 

Figs. 219 to 225 inclusive show various applications of chipping 
and calking hammers. 




Fig. 220 — Cutting off projecting ends of countersunk rivets on large structural columns. 
Hay Fdy. & Machine Wks., Newark, N. J. 



244 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 




Fig. 221 — Calking smoke-head on locomotive boiler in the shops 
of the Lehigh Valley R. R. at Easton, Pa. 



Stay Bolt Drivers and Cutters. Pneumatic stay bolt dri- 
vers, holder-ons and cutters are profitable investments for the 
boiler shop. In one instance a pneumatic stay bolt cutter cut 
off ioo ^4 -inch bolts in 30 minutes — a 2-hour hand job. 

The stay bolt cutter is also useful for cutting off rivets, knock- 
ing out cylinder and frame bolts, driving pins and similar work 
about the shop. 




Fig. 222 — Calking air drum underneath loco- 
motive boiler. 



IN BOILER SHOPS AND STRUCTURAL STEEL PLANTS 245 



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Fig. 223 — Chipping mud-ring on 
locomotive boiler. 



Fig. 224 — Calking riveted steel pipe joints. 



The heavier types of pneumatic hammers are also employed 
for knocking off rivet heads and driving out the rivets in repair 
work. A record is cited of 430 7 /8-inch rivets per hour. 

Flue and Tube Welders. Pneumatic machines for welding 
flues and tubes are rapidly coming into use. They are effecting 




Fig. 225 — Calking lead joints, cast-iron pipe line. 



246 COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 

decided economies. They may also be applied to various kinds 
of light forging. The machine shown in Fig. 226. is used for 
welding boiler flues. This machine, it will be noted, is equipped 
with two cylinders operating over two sets of dies — one for 
welding and the other for swedging. In one shop they report 
welding and swedging 26,000 flues per month with one machine. 




Fig. 226 — Pneumatic boiler flue welding 
machine. 

Another case records the swedging and welding of 2-inch flues in 
an average time of 5 seconds, the weld being smooth both inside 
and out, and the flue of even thickness. 

Fig. 227 shows a machine for swedging and welding superheater 
tubes up to 6 inches in diameter. 

An extensive use to which air is being put is for testing tanks, 
boilers, etc., for leakage. See Fig. 228. 



IN BOILER SHOPS AND STRUCTURAL STEEL PLANTS 247 




Fig. 227 — Pneumatic machine for welding and 
swedging superheater tubes. 



A feature of riveting work in many shops is the increasing use 
of portable oil rivet heaters. These are generally self-contained, 
mounted on trucks, as shown in Fig. 229. The tank carrying the 




Fig. 228 — Testing automobile radiators by air pressure 
in the plant of the Fedders Mfg. Co., Buffalo, N. Y. 



248 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



oil supply is usually of sufficient size to carry a day's supply. 
The heating capacity of such a furnace is usually about 400 
^-inch or 7/8-inch rivets per hour. Pressure is applied to the 
burner and tank from any convenient outlet in the shop com- 
pressed air line. Regulating valves on the furnace generally 
control the pressure applied to the tank. 

The use of these furnaces makes it possible to fabricate 
work anywhere in the shop or out in the yard without experienc- 
ing inconvenience and delay in obtaining heated rivets. 



111- fa * 

■Br M 

L9^M ' '■'■■■■ asm- ^ 



Fig. 229 — Portable compressed air oil rivet 
heating forge. 



CHAPTER XIV 
HOISTING— HANDLING— CONVEYING 

The advantages of compressed air for hoisting, handling and 
conveying materials in the manufacturing plant have long been 
appreciated and there are, therefore, innumerable examples and 
much available data to be cited concerning the practice in various 
classes of work. 

In the following are described and illustrated a number of in- 
stallations and records of experience and it is hoped that they 
may act as a guide to others confronted with similar problems. 




M 



Fig. 230 



Hoisting and Handling. The application of compressed air 
for this class of work ranges from the simple job of auxiliary aid 
for placing work on the bench or machine tool to the more com- 
plex work of the traveling shop crane. 

Mr. Frank Richards, Managing Editor of Compressed Air Mag- 
azine, in commenting on the cost of hoisting with air hoists, es- 
timates that at 100 lbs. gauge pressure, compressed air costs about 
5 cents per 1,000 cubic feet of free air and basing his determina- 
tions on this, the rated lifting capacities of various size hoists, 
their free air consumption per 4-foot lift, at 90 lbs. pressure and 
providing a margin of 30% to cover such contingencies as taking 
up the slack of the rope, the attaching means, etc., has compiled 
the following very interesting table of costs. The table shows the 
cost per single 4-foot lift and also the cost for 100 4-foot lifts. 

249 



250 COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 

TABLE OF HOISTING COSTS 



Diam. 


Effective 


Maximum 


Cu.Ft. of 


Cost of 


Cost of 


of Cyl. 


Area 


Weight 


Free Air per 


Air 


Air per 




of Piston 


Lifted 


4-ft. Lift 


Per Lift 


100 Lifts 


2 


3-05 


274 


•74 


$0.000037 


$0.0037 


3 


6.87 


618 


1.67 


.000084 


.0084 


4 


12.22 


1,099 


2.97 


.000149 


.0149 


5 


19.09 


1,718 


4.64 


.000232 


.0232 


6 


27.49 


2,444 


6.68 


.000334 


•0334 


7 


3742 


3,367 


9.09 


.000455 


•0455 


8 


48.87 


4.398 


11.88 


.000594 


•0594 


9 


61.85 


5,566 


15.03 


.000752 


.0752 


IO 


76.36 


6,872 


18.56 


.000928 


.0928 


ii 


92.39 


8,315 


22.46 


.001123 


.1123 


12 


109.96 


9,896 


26.73 


.001337 


.1337 



Under Chapter VI has already been described a number of 
standard manufactured pneumatic hoisting devices and it is 
suggested that they be studied in conjunction with this 
chapter. 

Special apparatus, generally designed and built to meet indi- 
vidual problems will, however, be touched upon here. 

The application of air hoists to cranes may be made in an 
almost endless variety of ways to meet special requirements. 
Hand power cranes already in use may be powerized by means 
of simple cylinder hoists of both the vertical or horizontal types 
or by means of inexpensive air motors. 

A few typical installations follow: 

In Figs. 230 and 231 are shown two methods which may be 
employed in utilizing cylinder types of hoists where headroom 
does not permit of their being placed vertically. They are sup- 
ported in the manner most convenient and a chain or a wire rope 
lead from the piston rod one-quarter way around a sheave down 
to a hook to which the load is attached, as shown in Fig. 230. Of 
course in this case the length of lift is limited by the travel of 
the piston. 



HOISTING HANDLING CONVEYING 25 1 

By rigging up as shown in Fig. 231 the length of lift may be 
doubled. By the employment of still more sheaves the length 
of lift may be still further multiplied. In this latter case, 
however, the fact must not be overlooked that relatively larger 
hoists must be employed than with the arrangement shown in 
Fig. 230. 

Fig. 232 shows a novel application of a vertical cylinder hoist 
to an existing hand crane in a foundry. The cylinder was bolted 
to the upper part of the mast and by means of a multiplying 
sheave arrangement somewhat similar to that already described, 
the motion of the lifting hook was made double that of the travel 




Fig. 231 

of the cylinder piston. As will be noted, one end of the rope 
passed over the lifting sheave down to the crane hook, the other 
end being attached to the usual winding drum of the hand wind- 
lass of the mast. This addition was made without interference 
with the hand apparatus and the crane may be operated either 
with power or by hand. 

Still another converted hand foundry crane is shown in Fig. 
233. An air motor of the reversible direct-acting piston type 
was attached between the legs of the mast and geared to the 
main hoisting drum gear by a small pinion keyed to the air 
motor shaft. No alteration of the existing apparatus was 
necessary and the crane may be operated either by power or 
hand. 

Some idea of the economy of this air operated crane may be 
gathered from the statement that the air compressor is stopped 
at the end of the day's work with the air receiver charged. This 
supply of air is sufficient to operate the crane for drawing off all 
castings in the evening. 



25? 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 




Fig. 232 



This type of motor is preferable for crane work because its 
height of lift is not limited ; it is very compact and will hold the 
load safely at any point of the lift. 

Fig. 234 illustrates a 20-ton traveling crane installed in a 
machine shop and operated by air. This crane has a span of 




Fig. 233 



HOISTING HANDLING — CONVEYING 



253 




Fig. 234 — A 20-ton pneumatic traveling crane in a large 
machine shop. 



40 feet and a travel of 460 feet. Each movement of the crane is 
controlled by a separate engine, three of them being used, all 
piped, to a control valve located in the operator's cage. 




Fig- 235 — Pneumatic traveling crane and powerized sta- 
tionary crane in a foundry. 



254 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 




u 



u 



U- 



HOISTING — HANDLING — CONVEYING 



255 



The air supply line consists of a continuous hose built up of 
50-foot lengths coupled together, each coupling being made in 
combination with a swiveled sliding block, which slides on the 
overhead rail. As the crane moves away from the hose, it is 
pulled along, straightening out, and pulling the next length. 




Fig. 237 — A pneumatic motor hoist employed on 
overhead trolley. Morse-Williams Plant, Otis 
Elevator Co., Philadelphia, Pa. 



On the return travel of the crane, the swivel blocks come together 
and the hose falls in loops. 

Fig. 2 35 shows a hand power crane fitted with an air lift 
installed in a foundry. Two pipes with swing joints carry the air 
to the crane; the center joint being made with a roller runs on 
a circular track hung from the roof. 

This illustration also shows a small pneumatic traveling 
crane. 

Fig. 236 shows a derrick operated by compressed air at the 
plant of the American Iron and Steel Company, Lebanon, Pa. 



256 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 




Fig. 238 — Air motor hoist assisting machine tools in the Morse-Williams Plant, Otis 
Elevator Co., Philadelphia, Pa. 



This derrick is employed in the yard for handling iron of various 
shapes. It is equipped with three air motor hoists geared to the sev- 
eral rope drums — one for swinging the derrick, the second for oper- 
ating the boom and the third for handling the load. It takes its air 
from a large receiver placed nearby, as shown in the illustration. 
Fig- 2 37 shows a geared motor hoist used in conjunction with 
a trolley track leading into and out of the Morse- Williams plant 
of the Otis Elevator Company, Philadelphia, Pa. 



HOISTING — HANDLING — CONVEYING 257 

In Fig. 238 is shown the manner in which this same company- 
has arranged the motor type of hoist as assistant to machine tools. 

Fig. 239 is a close-up view of an air motor applied to a hand 
foundry crane in the plant of the National Car Wheel Company, 
Sayre, Pa. It is operated entirely by the long lever shown at 
the side. 




Fig. 239 — Air powerized foundry crane, National Car Wheel Co., Sayre, Pa. 

t 

To the same extent these hoists and motors can be applied to 
elevator lifts such as that described in the following and shown 
in Fig. 240. 

Aside from low initial cost of installation they have in their 
favor low cost for maintenance as the equipment is exceedingly 
simple. 

The hoist is suspended directly over an elevator lift, the hook- 
block being attached to the cross-frame of the cage. The lift is 
a short one, operating between two floors. The two long chains 



25« 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 





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lis:: 

I 

W&Pa 


i 

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mm 



Fig. 240 — Air motor hoist applied to elevator lift, 
City Forge & Iron Co., Dayton, Ohio. 




Fig. 241 — Horizontal cylinder hoists serving machine tools. 



HOISTING — HANDLING — CONVEYING 



259 



seen in the illustration control the operation of the hoist. This 
installation is in the plant of the City Forge and Iron Company, 
at Dayton, Ohio. 

Fig. 241 shows the manner in which one large shop applied the 
horizontal cylinder type of hoist for serving machine tools 
throughout the floor. 

Overhead track was installed at intervals the full length of the 
side bays and projecting into the central bay, so that if necessary 
the load could be transferred across the shop. 




Fig. 242 — Vertical cylinder hoists on swinging 
cranes serving machine tools. 



The cylinder was suspended from a four-wheel trolley by 
means of bands. A novel feature is the manner in which the 
movement of the piston has been applied to hoisting. The under 
side of the piston rod has been racked to operate on a pinion 
located between and keyed to the shaft carrying the two chain 
drums. The cylinder is double-acting and the action of the 
piston is controlled by a two-way valve operated by pull cords. 



260 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



With this type of cylinder power is employed both for lifting 
and lowering the load. 

Fig. 242 shows the assembly floor of a large shop, equipped with 
swinging cranes, from which are suspended vertical cylinder 
hoists attached to the familiar track trolley. For this class of 
work, calling for quick lifts of comparatively short heights, this 




Fig. 243 — An air motor hoist in the yard of a structural steel plant. 



type of hoist has proven a decided economy over the chain block 
and is especially suited for the shop where either head-room for a 
traveling crane is not sufficient or in a shop where the assembling 
of comparatively small units is going on simultaneously all over 
the floor. 

Fig. 243 is a view in the yard of a structural steel plant. A 
geared air motor hoist operating from a trolley on a track stretch- 
ing across the yard, is employed for loading freight cars. Note 



HOISTING — HANDLING — CONVEYING 



26l 



the size of beam being handled and the chain pulls by which the 
operator controls the action of the hoist. 




Fig. 244 — Method of applying individual machine 
hoists in the Bullock Electric Co's. Plant, East 
Norwood, Ohio. 

Fig. 244 is a view in the plant of the Bullock Electric Company, 
East Norwood, Ohio. This shows still another method of apply- 
ing a motor hoist to machine tools. 

Fig. 245 is a view in the car shops of the Manhattan Elevated 
Railroad of New York City. In this illustration two distinctly 




Fig. 24s — Vertical cylinder hoists in a railroad car shop. 



262 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 




Fig. 246 — Pneumatic hoists used in conjunction with traveling 
cranes in the plant of the American Car & Foundry Co., Jeffer- 
sonville, Ind. 




Fig. 247 — A vertical cylinder hoist adapted to 
the transferring of loads from one level to 
another. 



HOISTING — HANDLING — CONVEYING 



263 



different methods of using the vertical cylinder hoist are shown : 
one operates on a trolley, while the other has been applied to 
'powerizing' a swinging crane. Note particularly the multiplying 
sheave and chain arrangement to increase the height of lift 
beyond the travel of the piston. 

Figs. 246 to 248 inclusive depict various other special applica- 
tions. 





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Fig. 248 — Vertical cylinder hoists traveling on roof trusses employed in 
the warehouse of the Peerless Drawn Steel Co., Massillon, Ohio. 



RECORDS OF PERFORMANCE 

Savings made with air hoists in a large Railroad Shop — Railway 
Age: 

Placing wheels in wheel lathe, three lathes in the shop with an 
average of one change per day; saved the time of one man in 
handling this work, or a saving of $1.60 per day. 

Hoisting steel-tired wheels and axles in lathe, average of six 
changes per day; saving one hour's time and the labor of one 
man, or $1.80 per day. 

Hoisting axles into cut-off lathe, an average of ten changes per 
day; saving one hour per day, or twenty-five cents per day. 

One large boring mill averaging two changes per day; saving 
30 minutes in time and the labor of one helper, or $1.85 per day. 



264 COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 

In handling cylinders for a large boring mill and planer the 
saving in time was one-half hour for each change and the labor of 
one man dispensed with, or $1.60 per day. 

Three men working on pistons, etc., in raising them from the 
floor to the bench, serving three machinists; saving of one helper 
five hours per day or 80 cents per day. 

Raising chucks, face plates and other heavy work; saved the 
labor of one helper per day or $1.50 per day. 

Lifting driving wheels and other heavy work onto a large slot- 
ting machine; saving $1.50 per day. 

A pneumatic hoist employed for unloading scrap at the foundry 
requires but two men and four hours' time for the same amount 
of work formerly requiring six men and ten hours. 

The economy of an air hoist is well illustrated by the following 
recital of the experience of one large foundry : 

In making wheels for traction engines, a molder and helper 
made one mold per day of a wheel 16 inches face by 66 inches 
diameter, employing a hand crane. During the entire operation 
of molding and pouring, it was necessary to make 104 hoists and 
lowers. It required the two men and a laborer on the crane and 
took from five to six minutes to turn a flask; with the air hoist, 
the laborer on the crane was dispensed with and the flask is 
turned in two minutes. 

The saving in time alone is 52 x 3^2 minutes, or three hours 
per day, and the molder and helper now make two 58 x 12-inch 
wheels in addition to the large wheel, which formerly constituted 
a day's work. 

In this same foundry a test of one of their jib cranes operated 
by air gave the following: 

Area of piston, 452.39 square inches (24-inch diameter). 

Height of lift, 6 feet. 

Hoist, 2 feet to 1 foot of piston travel. 

Weights lifted, 2,000, 4,000, and 5,000 pounds. 

Main air receiver gauge, 100 feet from crane, ^registered 63 
pounds pressure. 

Gauge on hoisting cylinder 30, 40 and 45 pounds for the respec- 
tive hoists. 

It was found that it took ten pounds pressure on the hoisting 
cylinder gauge to overcome all the friction of the chains wrapping 



HOISTING — HANDLING — CONVEYING 



265 



around the sheaves, as well as the packing in the stuffing box pf 
the piston rod and the frictional resistance of the piston in the 
cylinder. 



Weight Lifted 
6 Feet 

Lbs. 


Pressure on 
Piston 

Lbs. 


Deducting 4,523.9 lbs. as being amount 
required to overcome all resistance 
except load we get — 
Lbs. 


2,000 
4,000 
5,000 


6,785.85 
9,047.80 

10,178.77 


2,261.55 
4,523-90 
5.654-87 



The excess of 261.55, 523.90 and 654.87 pounds in the respective 
cases is no doubt due to the fact that the chains are hugging the 
sheaves tighter under the loads than when empty; and this 
increased friction must be overcome at the expense of pressure. 

A 24-inch cylinder with a piston traveling 3 feet would contain 
28,275 cubic feet of free air if the gauge on the cylinder showed 
30 pounds pressure. Estimating the cost of compressed air at 5 
cents or less per 1,000 cubic feet of free air delivered at 100 
pounds pressure, it is evident that this performance is vastly 
more economical than a gang of men on a hand crane, with 
molders standing idle an indefinite time. 

Conveying. The conveying of bulk materials, such as ashes, 
powdered coal, sand, and similar material, by means of air, has 
recently been given considerable attention by engineers. The 
practice has been successfully applied abroad. There are some 
cases on record where such materials are being conveyed advan- 
tageously and economically over distances as great as 2,000 feet. 

As this problem is largely an engineering one, intending users 
should consult with those who have made a special study of the 
subject. 

The Pneumatic Conveyor Company of Chicago, and the Guar- 
antee Construction Company of New York City, are specializing 
in this class of work. 

There are two distinct systems employed in conveying such 
materials, the suction system and the pressure system. 



266 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



The pressure system utilizes low-pressure air, 2 pounds being 
ordinarily sufficient, although on occasion as much as 7 pounds 
pressure has been employed. 

In Figure No. 22 is shown a low-pressure blower of the type 
suitable for this class of work, the capacities varying from 1 ,000 
to 12,000 cubic feet per minute. 

Experience has shown that this system for handling ashes and 
coal should not be applied to boiler plants of less than 1,000 
horse power. 

A great many plants today are equipped with boilers for burn- 
ing powdered coal, and this system is especially adapted for its 
conveyance. 




Fig. 249 — General plan of pneumatic 
ash conveyer. 

With the suction system the ashes are taken from the boiler 
dry and drawn into a storage tank where they are automatically 
quenched and the dust settled. Fig. 249 shows the general 
arrangement of an ash conveyer system. 

To facilitate handling it is usual to install ash storage hoppers 
under the boilers, these hoppers being provided with gates from 
which the ashes feed through heavy intake hoppers, the rate of 
feeding being regulated by the attendant. From these intake 
hoppers the ashes are conveyed by the air current through steel 
or cast-iron pipes to a storage tank where a water spray quenches 
the live cinders and at the same time settles the dust. 

The exhauster is employed to draw the air from the storage 
tank, creating a sufficient vacuum to cause an inrush of air 
through the conveying pipe line. It is this air current that carries 



HOISTING — HANDLING — CONVEYING 



267 



the ashes to the tank. Special elbows provided in the line break 
up the clinkers, so that no obstruction can occur in the con- 
veying line. 

As the air is taken from the storage tank it passes through an 
air scrubber before going through the exhauster. The duty of 
this scrubber is to remove all dust and grit from the air. 




Fig. 250 — Exhauster and air scrubber for pneumatic ash conveyer. 



Where the pressure system is employed, the material to be 
conveyed is discharged into a large hopper from which it is redis- 
charged into a power-driven feeder, which in turn feeds it into the 
conveying line. As the material enters the conveying line, the 
air current carries it into a receiving or separating tank. In the 
case of coal, it is usually located above the coal bunkers. From 
this tank it is discharged either directly into the bunkers, or into 
a traveling hopper where the coal is to be distributed over a large 
area. 

A dust collector is provided for collecting the dust which 
escapes from the separating tank. 



268 COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 




Fig. 251 — Ash Conveying line and storage hoppers. 




Fig. 252 — Ash receiving tank. 



HOISTING HANDLING — CONVEYING 269 

The systems are identical for either ash or coal with minor 
modifications. For instance, where coal is being conveyed with 
the suction system, an automatic gate or special feeder is used 
for discharging the coal. Also, long sweep bends or turns are 
used in the pipe line instead of short radius elbows. 

Fig. 250 shows the exhauster and air scrubber for a pneumatic 
ash conveyer installed in the Rand-McNally Building, Chicago. 
Fig. 251 shows the conveying line and storage hoppers, and Fig. 
252 shows the receiving tank. 

In foundry practice it is not uncommon to elevate the sand 
supplied to the molding machines by means of air to an overhead 
bin, from which the sand is conveyed through a pipe or in a chute 
by gravity to the molding machine. A gate, in the chute or pipe, 
regulates the amount of sand fed to the mold. 

It is claimed that this system greatly increases the capacity of 
the molder as it eliminates the handling of sand with shovels. 



CHAPTER XV 
CLEANING WITH COMPRESSED AIR 

Cleaning nozzles, or 'blow guns' as they are sometimes 
called, are used to great advantage in many modern plants, 
having completely superseded bellows, brushes and cloths for 
many cleaning operations. An air jet is much more effective 
than a brush for cleaning out-of-the-way corners and at the same 




Fig- 253 — Sharpening machine equipped with air jet. 

time it avoids injury by contact, which is possible with brushes 
under certain circumstances. The hand bellows is a clumsy 
device which does nott:lean as effectively as a jet of compressed 
air and which is also liable to injure delicate work by coming in 
contact with it. 

270 



CLEANING WITH AIR 27 1 

Some Uses for Blow Guns. In the foundry and pattern 
shop the blow gun is used largely for cleaning core boxes, flasks, 
patterns, and for blowing out loose sand and graphite from molds 
before pouring; the latter work is generally of too delicate a 
nature for brushing and molders who have used the old-fashioned 
bellows will recall that time was often lost in 'slicking' over 
gashes made in the sand by the nose of the bellows. 

In the blacksmith shop compressed air is commonly used for 
keeping the dies clean while hammering and for blowing scale 
from the part being forged; at the same time the air jet often 
assists by reviving the heat in the hot metal. Sometimes a 
nozzle is arranged as a stationary fixture to direct a jet of air 
during each return stroke of the hammer, but more often it is 
attached to the end of a short length of hose and is operated by 
hand whenever desired. Fig. 253 shows such a jet attached, as 
a regular part, to an air operated drill sharpening machine. By 
keeping the dies and swages clean and free from scale this nozzle 
saves time and improves the quality of the work of the machine. 

Steam hammers sometimes have a similar nozzle for cleaning 
with a jet of steam instead of air. Air jets are, however, prefer- 
able to steam jets as the heat of the latter makes it difficult to 
handle and particles of condensed steam are often scattered about 
assisting the accumulation of dirt and the formation of rust. 

Sometimes a jet of air is used for the purpose of tempering, 
instead of immersing in oil or water. Where this method is 
applicable, it is, of course, cleaner than the others. 

In machine shops, there is no handier and quicker means of 
cleaning taps, dies, reamers, lathe and bench tools, milling 
machines, planers, drills, work benches, etc., blowing the chips, 
turnings, filings, shaving, etc. to the floor where they are readily 
collected by brushes or brooms. 

Compressed air has been employed in machine shops for the 
two-fold purpose of blowing out the chips and keeping the drill 
cool while drilling deep holes in cast-iron. It has even been 
applied in a similar manner while drilling in steel. In one inter- 
esting instance, where holes 5 inches in depth had to be drilled 
into machine steel, it was found that the regular method of cool- 
ing with oil was unsatisfactory as the chips became packed in the 
hole before the bottom was reached. This caused the drill bit 
to heat up and bind. Compressed air, at 75 pounds pressure, was 



X 



272 COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 

substituted for the lubricant, forcing it through the piping 
previously used for feeding oil. The cutting edges of the fluted 
drill bit were so ground as to produce small chips. The feed was 
made heavier than usual — about .015 inch per revolution — but 
the speed of rotation was rather slow. This resulted in chips of 
a size that were easily blown out of the hole as soon as cut. The 
work was equally as good, the chips were cooler than with oil 
cooling and the bit did not have to be removed from the hole 
until it had cut the full depth of 5 inches. 




Fig. 254 — Automatic pneu- 
matic ejecting device attached 
to punch press. 

In passing, it may be of interest to note that a somewhat 
similar practice to the above is employed in several types of 
drills for cutting rock. Some have hollow steels through which 
a jet of air is continually blowing, expelling the cuttings as fast 
as they are formed. Other types employ a combination of air 
'and water which keeps down the dust while expelling the cuttings 
with equal facility. 

Many punch presses and other automatic machines making 
small parts employ a nozzle which projects a jet of air during the 
up-stroke of the machine, for the two-fold purpose of removing 
any foreign substances and for ejecting stampings as formed. It 



CLEANING WITH AIR 273 

is apparent that such an arrangement produces better work by 
keeping the dies clean, prolongs the life of the dies and contrib- 
utes to safe operation by making it unnecessary for the operator 
to clean between the jaws of the machine or to insert his hands 
to remove the stampings. Naturally these factors all tend to 
increase and improve the production of a machine. 

Fig. 254 shows such an arrangement on a punch press which is 
used for ejecting the work as formed as well as for keeping the 
dies clean. The operation is as follows : The valve ' A ' is operated 




Fig- 255 — A unit air compressor 
for pneumatic ejecting device. 

on every up-stroke by an adjustable valve 'B' carried by the 
ram, by means of the support 'C; the trip has a steel roller, thus 
minimizing friction and is adjustable, making it possible to time 
the opening of the valve and vary the duration and intensity of 
the blast. In a recent 9-hour test with this machine it was found 
that the production was 47^ per cent, greater when the air attach- 
ment was used than when it was absent. 

A modification of the idea shown in Fig. 254 is necessary when 
a regular supply of compressed air is not available. In such 
cases a small unit air compressor is attached to and operated by 
the press, as shown in Fig. 255. 



274 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



Air jets are used for cleaning in practically all metal-working 
industries. They are invaluable in clock and watch factories 
and in other places where the delicate nature of the product 
precludes the use of any other means. It is almost a universal 
practice in printing establishments to clean type, cuts, etc. with 
air. It is practically impossible to use any other means for the 
effective cleaning of complicated machinery, as is demonstrated 
by the very extensive use of air nozzles in textile mills, saw mills, 




Fig. 256 — Cleaning motor with the air jet, employing a portable air 
compressor. 

in steam and electric railway shops, in garages and in electrical 
shops. Air cleaning is particularly handy for removing dust from 
overhead pulleys, shafting, pipes, wires and beams; by mounting 
the cleaning nozzle on the end of a pipe through which the air 
passes, the use of ladders and scaffolds maybe avoided when doing 
overhead cleaning, not only saving time but also increasing the 
safety of the operation. 

Electric motors and generators require frequent cleaning to 
prevent dust, lint or other foreign substances settling upon the 
armatures, fields and other parts. It is particularly necessary 
to clean out the air spaces, as otherwise the temperature of the 
motor would tend to rise, greatly affecting the efficiency and 



CLEANING WITH AIR 275 

perhaps even endangering the insulation by overheating. Fig. 
256 shows such an application. Switchboards, controllers and 
other electrical apparatus can be cleaned best by a jet of com- 
pressed air without danger of injury, as might occur with brushes. 
When cleaning out gas engine cylinders and valves, the easiest 
way to remove the scale, dirt and loosened carbon deposit is by 
means of an air jet. Other types of power machinery are also 
cleaned most conveniently by blowing. Compressed air is almost 
a necessity for blowing soot and dirt from the flues of boilers. 
Steam is also used for this purpose, but if compressed air of 
around 80 to 100 pounds pressure is available, it is decidedly pre- 
ferable for the purpose. 




Fig. 257 — Blow gun for cleaning with com- 
pressed air. 

Air jet cleaning is a particularly satisfactory way of cleaning 
surfaces preparatory to painting, varnishing or lacquering, effect- 
ively removing any dirt, scale or particles left by sandpaper or 
emery cloth. 

One advantage of the air jet over other methods of cleaning, 
that is particularly appreciated in manufacturing establishments, 
is its ability to dislodge dirt and dust while machinery is running, 
thus keeping the machines in the cleanest possible condition 
while in no way interfering with the rate of production. 

Types of Cleaning Nozzles. The apparatus used for 
cleaning is frequently a crude home-made affair — often merely a 
length of garden hose with a plug-cock on the end. Naturally 
such a device wastes a great deal more air than it applies usefully 
and is extravagantly expensive. There is little excuse for follow- 
ing such practices as there are many types of very economical 
cleaning nozzles on the market which can be purchased for a 
dollar or two. 

Fig. 257 shows a type of air-cleaning nozzle commonly em- 
ployed in shops and factories. To use the nozzle, the button is 



276 COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 

pressed with the thumb, a greater or less pressure regulating the 
force of the blast. When pressure is released, the air supply is 
shut off. This is a good feature which insures air being consumed 
only when actually needed. The tip is removable, which is 
frequently found desirable either when replacing or substituting 
other types of tips. Fig. 258 shows a button head tip, which is 
more suitable when the nozzle is to be inserted in small openings. 
Fig. 259 shows a bent nose tip which can work around corners 
with great facility. 



Fig. 258 — Button head cleaning nozzle tip. 



^vtSf-H^VTfH 



Fig. 259 — Bent nose clean- 
ing nozzle tip. 




Fig. 260 — Flat cleaning nozzle tip. 

The flat tip, Fig. 260, spreads the air over a greater area, but is 
not so useful for general purposes. It has an opening of about 
yi x 1 /16 inch and finds a wide employment in hat factories 
for raising the nap on certain kinds of goods, such as velours. 
Fig. 261 shows a still wider nozzle which has an opening I /ioo x 
1 5 /8 inches used for general cleaning of flat surfaces, as car seats 
and floor coverings. 

Fig. 262 illustrates a type of nozzle used extensively for blowing 
motors and for general machinery cleaning, where it is often 
desired to reach into remote corners. The nozzle has an ex- 
tension of about 15 inches of>^-inch pipe, reduced to an opening 
of about 1 /8 inch at the tip. This type has a lever-operated valve, 
which is self-closing upon release of the pressure of the hand. Fig. 
263 is another type of lever-operated nozzle. 



CLEANING WITH AIR 



277 



When the blow gun is used for cleaning in very inaccessible 
places, for instance engine ports, valve passages or jacket, it is 
often a good plan to attach to the end of the gun a short length 
of flexible copper tubing which may be bent into any shape 




Fig. 261 — A Westinghouse nozzle suitable 
for cleaning wide, flat surfaces. 




Fig. 262 — Parks blow gun nozzle for reaching 
remote corners. 



desired. At other times, for instance when there is danger of 
injury by theme tal of the nozzle coming into contact with the 
objects being cleaned, it is often desirable to slip a short piece of 
rubber tubing over the end of the nozzle. 

Knowing the service for which a cleaning nozzle is intended, 
it is a simple matter to select the most suitable type. Various air 
pressures are employed. Pressures of 10 to 35 pounds are common 
for blowing very small or light particles, but for heavy or oil- 



278 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



laden particles it is probable that pressures from 60 to 100 pounds 
are more effective. It is the sharp impact of the air upon the 
material to be removed which accomplishes the cleaning. With 
a suitable pressure this is usually accomplished as well with a 




Fig. 263 — Westinghouse blow gun nozzle with angular 
throttle, for cleaning in remote corners. 



small jet as with one of large diameter. Nothing is gained by 
employing a large volume of air when a small one will do, in 
fact a heavy blast may result in scattering the dust instead of 
merely dislodging it. A nozzle of 1 /8-inch diameter is believed 
to be most commonly employed, although 1 /16-inch, 3/32-inch, 
3/16-inch, ^-inch and 3/8-inch diameter nozzles are also used. 
The following table gives the approximate air consumption of 
jets of different sizes using different air pressures. 



CLEANING WITH AIR 



270 



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280 COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 

In cleaning machinery it is advisable to start at the top 
and work downwards, thus avoiding the necessity of going 
over any part a second time. Sometimes operators need 
special instructions as to how to manipulate the nozzle so as 
not to blow dirt over the part being manufactured or into 
the bearings of the machine; also so as to avoid blowing 
the lubricant out of bearings. If difficulty is experienced in 
the latter connection, it is usually eliminated by adopting a 
lower air pressure. 

If an air nozzle is permanently attached to a machine, the 
hose should be suspended so that it will not be in the operator's 
way. It is sometimes convenient to suspend it from above so 
that it will fall back out of the way when released and will just 
reach to the lowest point that it may be desired to clean. Some- 
times it is more convenient to arrange the hose so that it will 
drop into a hole in the work bench or table when not in use; 
with the latter plan it is, of course, necessary to fasten a disc of 
wood or sheet rubber back of the nozzle to prevent its following 
the hose through the hole. 

As cleaning hose has to withstand considerable wear, it is 
advisable to have it armored or wire- wound. 

Where it is desired to clean several machines in a room or on a 
floor at infrequent intervals, it is often advisable to install one or 
more permanent air pipe lines, running through the rooms, 
spaced conveniently, within easy reach and having numerous 
outlets. Sometimes these pipes are run overhead and branches 
from them are run down various columns to the outlets. Both 
of these arrangements avoid the employment of lengthy coils of 
hose stretched over the floor — a danger to the operators and 
often a source of annoyance due to kinking with consequent drop 
in air pressure. Instead, a short length of hose, with a quick 
coupling device on one end and a cleaning nozzle on the other, 
may be used. The latter is easily carried from place to place and 
can be plugged into any of the openings without delay. ' Quick- 
detachable' hose couplings are preferable to threaded couplings 
for this purpose, not only because they save time, but also because 
they are less apt to leak. Three-eighths-inch hose is amply 
heavy for most cleaning purposes and is a size easy to handle. 
Although there is no advantage in employing a hose heavier than 
needed, it is most advisable to select a hose of the best quality, 



CLEANING WITH AIR 28 1 

for the wear caused by dragging the hose about is bound to be 
considerable. 

In situations where the expense of installing permanent air 
lines is not warranted, it is often advisable to employ a portable 
motor-driven air compressor similar to that shown in Fig. 256. 
By simply plugging the electrical feed connection into a con- 
venient wall socket, the compressor is ready for use in an instant. 

Uninstructed employees sometimes remove the nozzle thinking 
to do better cleaning by blowing more air. They have also been 
known to enlarge the nozzle opening by filing. The former 
practice has been combated at times by inserting a reducer in 
the air supply line, thus limiting the air consumption. A hard- 
ened steel bushing forced into the tip of the nozzle prevents its 
enlargement by filing. The best way, however, to combat these 




Fig. 264 — A combined air acid gasoline gun for 
cleaning. 

abuses is to instruct the operators carefully and insist upon 
instructions being followed. 

The air, as taken from a compressor receiver, is generally in 
satisfactory condition for ordinary cleaning purposes. With 
some of the older types of compressor plants, however, lubricant 
is used too copiously, resulting in occasional minute particles of 
oil being blown from the cleaning nozzle. For the majority of 
purposes this is of no importance; however, at times it is necessary 
to have the air absolutely free from oil, for instance when clean- 
ing around fabrics in process of manufacture or when cleaning 
surfaces preparatory to painting or varnishing. An oil separator 
placed in the supply line will remove practically all of this oil, 
but in order to remove the last trace of oil, manufacturers 
have at times passed the air through cotton or cloths, in 
addition. 

The correct basis for figuring the relative cost of any system 
of pneumatic cleaning is the savings that can be effected rather 
than the cost involved. The value of the increased production, 
made possible by cleaning while machines are in operation 



282 COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 

instead of while shut down, very often exceeds the expense of 
supplying the air many times over. 

The air jet is most convenient for cleaning parts that are 
covered with grit and grease; after lapping a cylinder with 
grease and emery, for instance, the remaining grit can be removed 
easily by swabbing with gasoline or kerosene and following with 
a blast of air, which leaves clean surfaces free from grit. A 
device employed extensively in garages and engine repair shops 
combines a spray of gasoline or kerosene with A a blast of air, 
which is a most effective means of removing caked dirt and grease, 
such as accumulates on automobile mechanism. This is illus- 
trated in Fig. 264. The upper pipe is connected to the compressed 
air line while the lower curved pipe is connected by rubber 
tubing with a vessel containing kerosene or gasoline. The force 
of the air emerging from the nozzle not only expels the fluid at 
high velocity but it also raises it from the receptacle below. 



CHAPTER XVI 

THE APPLICATION OF 

PAINT, LACQUER, ENAMEL, METAL COATING, ETC. 

BY COMPRESSED AIR 

The introduction of compressed air to painting, varnishing, 
enameling, whitewashing and the application of protective or 
ornamentative coatings of other natures marked a quick transi- 
tion from slow and costly brushing methods, to systems, by 
comparison so efficient, rapid and economical as to make hand 
work undesirable practice. The application of such coatings by 
compressed air is accomplished by blowing or spraying them on, 
and in the following paragraphs this subject will be considered 
without specific reference to the material to be sprayed. 

The subject is one which touches, in some form, nearly every 
industry, but it is the intention to confine the discussion to its 
application in the metal-working field. Manufactured products 
are covered with primers, fillers, paints, surfaces, varnishes, 
japans, lacquers, enamels, bronzes, asphaltum, and by a recently 
perfected process, with metals of various kinds; buildings, walls 
and ceilings are painted or whitewashed; structural steel work 
is metal coated. Steel cars, ships and bridge structures are 
painted; in the foundry, molds are sprayed and cores are black- 
ened, tanks are lined with metal coatings, gasometers are painted 
— and a host of others — all by spraying. The result in each case 
is an immense saving of time, approximating from one-half to 
nine-tenths. That is, one man will do the work of from five to 
ten men, or, to put it another way, work costing two dollars by 
hand can be done for from twenty to forty cents, a saving of 
eighty to ninety per cent. 

Spraying produces a coating more thorough and even than 
hand work. The coating is projected on the surface or object 
with force sufficient to enter small cracks and crevices ordinarily 
untouched. This insures an unbroken coating. Again, an intri- 
cate surface can be finished in approximately the same time as a 
flat panel of the same size, and without the accumulation of 
excess material in depressions or around small raised parts. This 

1 



284 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



time saving is also true in the finishing of thin edges and corners 
where extra effort is needed with hand work. Sprayed coatings 
are smooth and uniform, without sags or runs. 

Among some people the idea prevails that spraying means 
blowing on a smother of liquid coating. Such is distinctly not 
the case, as with suitable apparatus the flow is under perfect 
control, far more so than with a brush. Of course, either method 
requires a certain amount of skill but spraying can be far more 
easily and quickly mastered than brush work. 




Fig. 265 — Paint spraying in the body department of an automo- 
bile manufacturing plant. 

In spraying, the object is to apply a fog-like spray of the 
coating until the fine heads of liquid coalesce and evenly cover 
the surface. Beyond this point a further application would cause 
runs and tears. It is a well-known fact that three thin coats are 
better and more durable than two thick ones even if the total 
amount of coating used in each case is the same. Spraying per- 
mits the exact gauging of the thickness of the coating to secure 
the best results, at the same time effecting maximum economy 
in the quantity of material used. 

Spraying readily adapts itself to work in which part of the 
object is to be left untouched. All that is necessary is a mask 
or shield of the proper shape with some simple means for affixing 



APPLICATION OF PAINT 285 

it to the object. In painting gas meters, for example, it has been 
found a simple matter to mask the dials and name plates with 
sheet brass shields attached to spring clips. Another method is 
the employment of rubber cups which hold the mask by suction. 
Portable objects are usually placed on turn-table mountings for 
painting, avoiding the necessity of touching the object and per- 
mitting the speedy coating of all sides. 

Where small objects are to be painted in quantities it is always 
advisable to provide a hood and an exhaust to carry off the fumes. 
This is essential to the health of the operators. Fig. 265 shows 
a typical installation in an automobile manufacturing plant. 

While some have found it advisable to collect the surplus paint 
drawn through with the exhaust, such is the rare exception 
rather than the rule. There is, of course, some wastage of 
material but this is balanced by the fact that there is no evapora- 
tion or drying in the pots or absorption in the brushes. In 
selecting a ventilator it must be borne in mind that the slight 
amount of liquid carried along by the air will accumulate on the 
fan and possibly impair its operation. Manufacturers of spray 
apparatus either furnish or recommend hoods and exhaust appa- 
ratus for specific duties and it is always best to follow their 
suggestions. The volume of exhaust air required is merely 
enough to keep a steady current moving away from the workman. 

Here it may be well to state that both' paint manufacturers 
and spray manufacturers are always willing to give advice and 
suggestions about any specific problem and in the majority of 
cases will supply finish samples and estimates of the time, of cost, 
labor, materials and workmanship. 

The air pressure required in spraying varies with the consist- 
ency of the material, its viscosity and thickness. Thin lacquers 
may be sprayed with a pressure of from five to ten pounds while 
very heavy materials may require pressures as high as eighty 
pounds. The air pressure to a certain extent determines the 
character of the finished job, low pressures being used for fine 
work and higher pressures where volume of output rather than 
quality of finish is desired. The lowest point at which the paint 
breaks up is best to use, as higher pressures are wasteful of 
material. Regulation of pressure is easily obtained by means of 
a reducing valve in the air line. 



286 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



The volume of air required varies with different materials and 
the various size nozzles or spray tips used with them and also 
to a limited extent with the particular apparatus used. The 
spray tip used for varnishing, lacquering and similar fine work 
has an opening of from .04 to .18 inches and the average air con- 
sumption per spray is from one to three cubic feet per minute. 

In laying out a spraying system particular care should be 
taken to entirely exclude dust, oil and moisture from the air 
supply. Dust will impair the finish, and oil or moisture seriously 
interfere with the smoothness and permanence of the coating. 




Fig. 266 — Eclipse air brush. 



Care should be taken in the selection of the compressor as one of 
inferior grade will surely cause trouble with the product. A 
machine of the plate valve type is perhaps the best for this pur- 
pose, as the correctly designed plate valve needs no lubrication. 
This being the case, cylinder lubrication can be closely regulated 
and the possibility of oil being carried into the air line minimized. 
The compressor intake pipe should be large enough to permit its 
being screened with the finest gauze, without reducing the neces- 
sary intake volume. An air filter of reliable make should be 
placed in the discharge line to trap any dust, oil or moisture car- 
ried in the air. When air is taken from the shop air supply these 
same precautions should in every case be followed. 

The device used for spraying varnishes, lacquers, enamels, 
paints and the like is called an air brush — of which there are 
several types. One commonly used type has an attached point 
cup or reservoir (Fig. 266). Where a considerable quantity of 
material of one kind is to be applied the separate container type 
(Fig. 267) may be preferred. This type draws its supply from an 



APPLICATION OF PAINT 



287 



elevated tank holding about five gallons. Where small quantities 
of material of different kinds and colors are to be successively 
applied a single air brush of the first type can be supplied with 
a number of interchangeable cups. When fluids of heavy body 
are used it is necessary to constantly agitate them to prevent 
'settling out.' This is accomplished by an air agitator in the 
tank or cup. 

The attached reservoir type of air brush may be classed as 
either low-pressure or high-pressure. In the first, air is ad- 







1L-M ^■■■^ffl 



Fig. 267 — Aeron piston type air brush. 



mitted to the reservoir forcing the fluid out by air pressure. In 
the high-pressure type the blast of air past the tip of the fluid 
tube draws the paint up and out by vacuum. The low-pressure 
type is generally considered more economical in air consumption 
though higher in first cost. 

The action of the air brush can best be explained by reference 
to the sectional diagram (Fig. 268). This is a typical device of 
the low-pressure type and is the product of the Eclipse Air 
Brush Company. Air is admitted at H, the supply being con- 
trolled by plunger valve P. Needle valve V admits a slight 
amount of air from A to reservoir R. This forces the fluid in 
the reservoir up the fluid tube F and out of the tip T where it is 
caught by the air blast from nozzle N, is atomized and pro- 
jected on the work. Air nozzle N is adjustable and is locked in 
position by set screw S. Leather gasket W prevents leakage 



288 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



around the edge of the cup. When valve P is released an ex- 
haust passage is opened permitting the escape of the air 
from the reservoir and sucking the fluid out of the tip and 
fluid tube. 




Fig. 268 — Cross-section view of 
typical air brush. 




Fig. 269 — Eureka air brush. 



The air pressure in the reservoir R is regulated according to 
the consistency of the material used. A little experimenting on 
the part of the operator easily determines the best air pressure 
to secure proper flow from the tip, after which valve V is locked 
in position by knurled nut M. 

Fig. 269 shows the Eureka Air Brush, an example of the high 
pressure, open tip type. This, as well as the other general types 



APPLICATION OF PAINT 



289 



is to be had with a variety of spray tips and special adaptations 
for spraying different liquids. 

The separate container outfit is best typified by the 'Aeron', 
manufactured by the De Vilbiss Manufacturing Company. Fig. 
270 shows the pistol type air brush connected by flexible tubing 
to the elevated container and to the air supply. This shows the 
correct air piping arrangement with moisture trap, reducing 
valve, pressure gauge and air filter. At the right of the illus- 




Fig. 270 — Complete Aeron Spraying outfit. 



tration will be noted an Air Duster or blow gun, a very efficient 
and handy means for removing dust particles prior to spraying. 
The operation of the 'Aeron' is essentially the same as the 
inclosed tip, cup type air brush, except that the pressure feed 
of the latter has been replaced by a gravity flow from the el- 
evated container. The trigger control is very easy to manipulate 
and very sensitive. The flow of material is automatically ad- 
justed by varying the air pressure by means of the reducing 
valve. The elevated receptacle is equipped with an air agitator, 
connected to the pressure supply. This maintains the material 



290 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



in constant motion and prevents the settling out of the heavy 
pigments. 

An air brush must be kept free from gummed accumulations, 
but its very simplicity makes this an easy task. A small amount 




Fig. 271 — Dismantled air brush showing simplicity. 




Fig. 272 — Air brush for rough work. 



of thinner or solvent sprayed through the tip will thoroughly 
clean the parts which have been in contact with the paint or 
other material. If desired, the air brush can be easily dismantled 
(Fig. 271), and the fluid tube and tip placed in a bath of whatever 
thinner is being used. With a little common-sense care the air 
brush should operate without any serious trouble. 



APPLICATION OF PAINT 29 1 

For work of a more rough and ready nature the simple device 
(Fig. 272), is very efficient. It is particularly adapted to spray- 
ing whitewash on factory interiors, painting tank cars and work 
of similar nature. It finds use in foundry work, in spraying cores 
and blacking molds. 

Paint, whitewash or other material is drawn by suction from 
an open pail or container and sprayed on the work in a blast of 
compressed air. 

Special industries, such as munitions manufacture, bring into 
use devices which adapt the principles of the spraying apparatus 
described, to particular work. 

Paint in bulk can be quickly and evenly mixed by compressed 
air. A length of pipe bent in a circle, having one end plugged and 
small holes drilled at 4-inch intervals, connected to the air line, 
will, if placed at the bottom of the mixing tank, agitate and mix 
the lead and oil or paste and oil in a manner as superior to other 
means as it is simple. 

Concrete evidence of the scope and the decided economies of 
applying coatings by spraying will be found in the following 
briefly outlined 

RECORDS OF PERFORMANCE 

At the shops of the Chalmers Motor Company spraying, to- 
gether with improved drying facilities, has reduced the time 
required to coat an automobile body with two coats of paint 
from forty-eight hours to two hours. 

With a spray similar to that shown in Fig. 272 it is possible to 
apply a coat of paint to the body frame and trucks of a 50- ton 
steel coal car in thirty minutes, or a 12,000-gallon tank car in an 
equal time. 

Fig. 273 shows the process of painting small machines with the 
air brush. 

Six men with air brushes finish metal parts at the factory of 
the Empire Cream Separator Company, Bloomfield, N. J. — work 
that formerly required nineteen hand painters. 

Tests made by a manufacturer of kitchen ranges show that 
one man with an air brush will coat 100 standard size ranges 
with air dry enamel while a hand workman does from 20 to 25. 



292 COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 

Brass electric bulb sockets can be lacquered at the rate of 
3,000 per day by a single air brush operator as against 500 to 
600 by hand. 

In applying rough undercoating or primer to five-passenger 
automobile bodies an operator can coat 20 per hour by spraying. 
Brush-coating a single body would consume an equal period of 
time. 




Fig. 273 — Painting small engines with air brush. 

In munitions manufacture 16-pound high explosive shells can 
be enameled on the inside or lacquered on the outside at the rate 
of 400 to 500 per hour as compared with an output of 30 to 40 with 
hand work. 

Klaxon Horns are being sprayed with one coat of baking japan 
at the rate of 600 per day, per operator. It is estimated that an 
expert brush workman could do no more than 100 in an equal 
time. 

Stamped metal rims for buttons are sprayed on trays holding 
1,000 each at the rate of 50,000 per hour. 

A large manufacturer of brass bedsteads employs only ten 
sprayer hands in the lacquering department. This concern fin- 
ishes 400 brass beds per day. 



APPLICATION OF PAINT 293 

A manufacturer of lamp shades finds that a single air brush 
workman can white-enamel the inside of from 800 to 1,000 
pieces per day or coat the outside of 800 with green enamel. In 
brushing, a workman who can turn out 200 per day is considered 
an expert. 

A gas company handling from 900 to 1,500 five-light gas meters 
per 48-hour week finds that two men with air brushes can finish 
30 meters per hour as compared with 3 by hand. 

Metal Spraying. The recently perfected Schoop process for 
applying metal coatings by spraying occupies a unique position 
in the production of non-corrosive surfaces. It is capable of 
depositing lead, tin, zinc, aluminum, copper, nickel and their 
alloys on any coherent object, whether metallic or not. The 
thickness of the coating is under instant control and the applica- 
tion can be limited to any portion of the object. 

Of the alternate processes electroplating is limited to the 
application of two or three elements on metallic or metalized 
objects of suitable size and shape; tinning, galvanizing and sher- 
ardizing are fusion processes and can only be applied to metallic 
objects not liable to injury or distortion by heat. These processes 
ordinarily necessitate the coating of the entire object, part of 
which deposit is often unnecessary. Coatings are irregular and 
hard to control as to thickness and quality. 

The Schoop process involves the use of a 'pistol' (Fig. 274), air 
at 40 pounds pressure, a tank of hydrogen and one of some reduc- 
ing gas, usually oxygen, acetylene or blau-gas. The 'pistol' is 
in reality a metal spraying air brush. A fine wire of any metal 
is fed into a reducing flame of ignited gas, being drawn through 
the pistol by an air turbine at a rate regulated to be exactly 
equal to the melting rate of the metal. As each molten drop is 
formed it is seized by the air blast and projected from the spray 
tip. 

The metal leaves the 'pistol' in the form of a spray or fog of 
hot, impalpable particles moving at high velocity, which while 
still plastic, impact themselves upon the object. The minute 
metal particles enter the surface pores of the object and dovetail 
the coating to it, forming a firm, closely adherent film of metal. 
The supply of reducing gas is always maintained in excess of 
that of the oxygen and the metallic particles strike the object 
in the presence of the surplus reducing gas, eliminating the pos- 



294 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



sibility of oxidation at the junction point and forming perfect 
metal to metal contact. 

In coating metallic objects the degree of adherence is deter- 
mined by the relative hardness of the coating and the object. 
The greater the difference and the more porous the object the 
greater will be the closeness of the union. Spraying is accom- 
plished by passing the 'pistol' over the surface at a distance of 
about 5 inches, the operator's eye readily guiding the application. 
A single coating is about o.ooi inches thick. The thickness of 
the deposit depends upon the number of times the 'pistol' is 




Fig. 274 — Schoop Metal Spraying Pistol. 



passed over the surface but experiments have demonstrated that 
two-thousandths of an inch well impacted is as effective as a 
much thicker coating. A thin coat is more firmly adherent than 
a thick one, and of course more economical of metal. 

In the particular case of zinc a special apparatus has been 
devised to use the zinc dust which is a by-product of the smelters 
and much cheaper than the same metal in wire form. This de- 
vice uses only one gas, ordinarily acetylene, instead of two. It 
takes advantage of the fact that metals in a very finely powdered 
state have many of the characteristics of a liquid. They flow 
easily, mix together like drops and unite under the influence of 
very little force. 

The applications of the metal spraying process are varied and 
its uses are being extended more widely as its possibilities become 



APPLICATION OF PAINT 



295 



more clearly understood. It is particularly effective in repairing 
defects in galvanized coatings, and copper coatings such as that 
on the familiar Prestolite acetylene tanks. In the electrical field 
carbon brushes and resistance rods are being coated with copper. 
Steel tanks are being protected from interior corrosion by lining 
them with a zinc coating. This is particularly effective in pro- 
tecting the joints and seams as the sprayed coating is an unbroken 




Fig. 27s — Metal coating stove oven linings. 



film. Large gate valves are being similarly lined and the same 
is true of large gas and water mains. In this latter case lead is 
also used as a coating. Stove ovens are being effectively pro- 
tected by spraying with aluminum, a light, cheap and non- 
corrosive coating that cannot be applied by any other method. 
See Fig. 275. 

Bridge and structural steel work is being zinc coated after 
erection, effectively protecting both surfaces and joints. 

It is useless to expect perfect adherence of enamel, japan, metal 
spray or other material or the permanent protection of the 
metallic surface if scale, rust, grease and dirt have not first been 
removed. 



296 COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 

Pickling in acid solutions, tumbling barrels and wire brush 
cleaning are now considered less effective than sand blasting, in 
that by the former methods portions of intricate surfaces are 
often left untouched. 

The most rapid and efficient cleaning can be accomplished by 
sand blasting. The greatest merit of the sand blast is that it 
removes from every portion of any surface — ornamental designs, 
angles, edges, joints — every trace of dirt, rust, grease and scale, 
and the bright metallic surface is everywhere exposed and per- 
fectly cleaned. This is an ideal condition to secure strong adhe- 
sion of the coating so that it will as far as possible protect the 
metal. 

In metal coating a preliminary sand blasting is a necessity. 
It opens up the minute pores of the metallic surface so that the 
metal spray can penetrate. 

The methods of sand blasting, as applied to objects of various 
kinds, are described in Chapter X and need no further explana- 
tion here. 

The coating to be used should be applied immediately after 
sand blasting and before any surface corrosion can take place. 



CHAPTER XVII 
PUMPING WITH COMPRESSED AIR 

Compressed air is employed extensively for pumping water and 
various other liquids and semi-liquids used in the industries. 

There are four general methods of pumping by means of com- 
pressed air in common use, which may be classified as follows: 

1. The air lift pump. 

2. The pneumatic displacement pump. 

3. The return air system of pumping. 

4. The reciprocating steam pump operated by air. 

The Air Lift Pump. The air lift is peculiarly adapted for 
raising water from deep driven wells, although it is also frequently 
applied successfully for raising water from shallow wells. 

The air lift is characterized by extreme simplicity as there are 
no moving parts whatever in the well, simply the water supply 
pipe and the air pipe which carries the air to the bottom of the 
water supply pipe. The water from the air lift system is as pure 
as the source of supply, if not actually purer, as aeration of water 
results in purification. The water is also slightly cooled due to 
the expansion of the air in contact with the water. With the use 
of the air lift the well is steadily improved and the flow is in- 
creased. With the deep well pump of the rotary or recipro- 
cating type foreign matter, as sand, must be screened off and in 
time the well becomes clogged. The air lift draws out the sand 
and sludge, enlarging the water-bearing cavities and so increases 
the flow. 

It is natural that at first the air lift system should have been 
lacking in the efficiency now possible. Its rapid growth in favor 
everywhere shows a foundation of solid merit and an adapta- 
bility to certain conditions which no other pumping system can 
meet so well. A certain prejudice exists that the system is lack- 
ing in economy, based on results obtained with improper methods 
of well piping in connection with inefficient compressors. The 
superior air compressor of today operates with a half or quarter 
of the fuel formerly required for a given power. Refinements in 

297 



298 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



well piping and a better understanding of conditions have re- 
duced both the pressure and the volume of air needed. 

The initial cost of the air lift in small installations, say under 
300 gallons per minute, is slightly in excess of that of other com- 







8229 



Fig. 276 — Diagram of side inlet type of air lift. 



petitive methods; from 300 to 800 gallons the cost is about 
equal, and above this limit the air lift has a decided advantage 
as to cost. We are considering now, of course, the total cost of 
plant including the wells, this difference in favor of the air lift 
being due to the fact that fewer wells are required for an equal 
amount of water and assurance of continuous operation. 



PUMPING 



299 




i 



Fig. 276 shows the principle of the air lift 
and indicates the various factors that enter 
into a typical air lift proposition. In this case 
the 'lift', that is the total vertical height from 
the pumping level of the water in the well to 
the point of discharge, is assumed to be 200 
feet and the 'submergence', that is the depth 
that the air pipe is submerged below the pump- 
ing level of the water in the well, is assumed to 



8367 



Fig. 277 — Typical foot- 
piece for side inlet type 
of air lift. 




Fig. 278 — Diagram of complete air lift well with um- 
brella discharge. 



300 COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 

be 200 feet. The percentage of submergence is the percentage of 
the total length of pipe which is submerged in the well water 
when pumping down to the point of air admission, and in this case 
is 50 per cent. The necessary percentage of submergence varies 
with the lift; low lifts require proportionately more submergence 
than high lifts, or in other words, the necessary submergence 
decreases as the lift increases. The range of these percentages 
is found within the following limitations: 

For lifts of 20 feet, 66% submergence 
For lifts of 500 feet, 41% submergence 

In the diagram of Fig. 276 it will be seen that when pumping, 
the water level recedes 50 feet from its normal level, so that the 
starting submergence is 50 feet greater than the running sub- 
mergence and consequently a proportionately higher air pressure 
is required to start the air lift. 

In operation, the weight of the column of water outside of the 
eduction pipe overbalances the combined weight of the column 
of mixed air and water and forces it up the eduction pipe and 
out of the discharge. The tendency of the air bubbles to rise 
results in a certain loss of efficiency for in slipping through the 
water the bubbles do not assist levitation but tend to retard it. 
Hence it is customary, in the improved forms of air lifts, to 
employ a foot-piece which divides the air into very small bubbles 
before mixing it with the water. These minute bubbles ascend 
through the water at a much slower rate than large bubbles and 
hence cut down the slippage loss very materially. Fig 277 shows 
a type of foot-piece operating on this principle suitable for use 
with the air lift shown in Fig. 276, as indicated in the diagram 
Fig. 278. The arrangement of the perforations in the foot-piece 
permits only as much air to be blown into the water column as 
will be sufficient to keep this column moving upward to the 
point of discharge. When the pump is first started it is likely 
that in order to blow out the column en masse most or all of these 
perforations are in action and an uneconomical condition exists 
momentarily. After the first impulse, however, the relation be- 
tween the head of water, the diameters of the pipes and the air 
pressure establishes a state of equilibrium which automatically 
causes the water to cover some of the lower perforations and in 
this way to restrict the admission of compressed air to that only 
which is required to keep the aerated column moving upward. 



PUMPING 



301 



Fig. 279 shows a type of air lift in 
which the air pipe passes through the 
center of the water discharge pipe. This 
form, known as the central air pipe sys- 
tem, is used instead of that shown in 
Fig. 276, known as the side inlet pump, 
when it is desired to obtain the greatest 
possible output for a given size of well 



W/frr r 





rn 



~ § §1 



8284 



Fig. 279 — Diagram of central inlet type of air lift. 



Fig. 280 — Typical foot- 
piece for central inlet 
type of air lift. 



302 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



1 - — im 



casing. Fig. 280 illustrates a type of perforated foot-piece 
used with this system. It is essentially the same as that shown 
in Fig. 277, and requires no extended description. In both of 
these foot-pieces there is no opportunity for particles of foreign 
matter as scale in the air pipe to clog the foot-piece as they will 
settle through the open end of the foot-piece into the bottom of 
the well. 

Fig. 281 shows an arrangement which is especially suited for 
low lifts where the well pressure is strong. 

In the operation of air lifts it has 
been difficult to transfer water for any 
distance horizontally or at an angle, due 
to the tendency of the air to separate 
from the water under such circumstances 
and rise to the upper side of the pipe, 
thus impairing the efficiency very mater- 
ially. The booster is a device recently 
perfected which overcomes this difficulty 
and permits the conveyance of water 
for a considerable distance horizontally 
as well as vertically. Fig. 282 shows an 
exterior view of a typical air lift booster 
and Fig. 283 shows diagrammatically the 
arrangement of a booster in the well 
head. Here two forms of discharge pipe 
are indicated leading to the water storage 
tank, one having a deflector or umbrella 
type of discharge head and the other 
having a plain return bend discharge. 
The mixed air and water, as delivered by the air lift, separates 
in the booster and the pressure of the air is utilized to do the 
work. The operation is simple. The amount of air within the 
booster is controlled by the water level. An automatic valve 
operates so that as the water rises the valve is closed and a pres- 
sure is built up in the booster, and vice versa, as the water falls, 
the valve opens to allow the air to escape from the booster. The 
air either passes to the atmosphere or to the intake side of the 
compressor, as may be desired. In returning the air to the com- 
pressor, care should be taken to separate as much moisture as 
possible from it before it is taken into the compressor. 




i=H±* 



V7W. WW/////7A 

Fig. 281 — Saunders air lift 
system. 



PUMPING 



303 



The most important feature of the booster is the advantage 
gained by being able to deliver the water at the desired place, 
without the extra expense of additional pumping equipment. 

The compressor to operate an air lift system may be located 
at a considerable distance from the source of water supply and a 




Fig. 282 — Air lift booster. 



single compressor may be used to operate a number of wells 
scattered over an extensive area. The advantages of controlling 
all the wells from some central point and having the compressor 
where it can receive proper care, for instance in a power plant, 
are too apparent to require further comment. 

Fig. 284 shows an application of the air lift principle for trans- 
ferring chemical solutions from one vessel to another in a factory. 
The process calls for the solution to fill first one vessel, remaining 
there a definite length of time and then draining off, later to fill 



304 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



the other vessel. The two vessels are thus filled and emptied 
alternately. 

These vessels, each of about 55 gallons capacity, drain into a 
barrel about 2 feet, 6 inches deep, which is set flush with the floor. 
Through the bottom of the barrel a hole about 4 inches in diam- 
eter is bored, and a pipe of this size is carried down for about 



W/rrtrr Towi* 




Fig. 283 — Diagram of air lift and booster. 



PUMPING 



305 



8 feet. This gives the necessary submergence, and the hydro- 
static pressure of the liquor in the barrel forces the lighter column 
of mixed liquor and air up to the kettle. The total lift from the 
bottom of the pipe to the discharge is 13 feet, 6 inches. Each of 
the vessels is filled fifteen to seventeen times per day by this 
little lift, each operation requiring about two and one-half 




Fig. 284 — Diagram of air lift employed for transferring chemical solutions. 



minutes. The saving in liquor by this scheme amounts to about 
three-quarters of a barrel per day, and this, together with the 
saving in manual labor forms quite an item in the day's work. 

The Pneumatic Displacement Pump. The pneumatic dis- 
placement pump is suitable for raising large or small quantities 
of water or other liquids over moderate lifts. In this type of 
pump the air pressure acts directly upon the fluid pumped 
without the intervention of pistons or other mechanical parts. 
The pneumatic displacement pump (Fig. 285) must be placed so 
that fluid will flow into it by gravity. This may be accomplished 



306 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



by submerging it in a stream or in a well. Beyond this limita- 
tion, it is an extremely simple and convenient means of supply- 
ing water. The simplest form would be a single cylinder having 
the valves controlled by hand. Such an arrangement would do 
for a small intermittent supply, but for a continuous supply 
twin cylinders are employed, as represented in Fig. 286. Air 
pressure is always on one or the other of the tanks and while 




Fig. 285 — Pneumatic displacement pump. 



one is filling the other is discharging, resulting in an absolutely 
steady stream. The copper float located in the bottom of each 
tank operates the main air valve so as to put air pressure on the 
opposite tank when the water has receded to a given level. 

This type of pump uses air non-expansively but, due to its 
extreme simplicity, is considered a satisfactory and efficient way 
of pumping under moderate heads, say up to 100 feet. Regard- 
ing the efficiency of the displacement pump, the case of a pump 
supplying 150 gallons per minute through a 4-inch main 1,000 
feet in length, and operating against a 60- foot lift, will be cited. 
Making liberal allowances for the loss of air pressure and allow- 



PUMPING 



307 



ing for losses in the compressor, the total efficiency of the system 
came to 33 per cent. This figure is the ratio of the theoretical 
horse power required to raise the water as compared to the in- 
dicated horse power in the steam cylinder of the compressor. 
Putting it another way, it is the ratio of the amount of power 
that ought to be required for conveying and raising the water 
(with pumping machinery 100 per cent, efficient) as compared 




Fig. 286 — Details of pneumatic displacement pump. 



to the amount of power that was available in the actual steam 
consumed in running the compressor for the pumping operation. 

Any kind of water may be pumped, whether muddy or gritty, 
without materially affecting the valves. In fact this device has 
been successfully used for pumping sewage, heavy chemical solu- 
tions and semi-fluids. Neither lubrication nor packing is neces- 
sary and there are no restricted valves or water passages likely 
to clog up. 

The Automatic Montejus (Fig. 287) is an apparatus working on 
the displacement principle used for pumping chemical solutions. 
The liquid flows to the machine by gravity and enters at 'A' 
through a ball check valve. Assuming the tank ' D ' empty, the 



3 o8 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



full weight of the lower float ' B' keeps the exhaust valve 'E' 
open so that the liquid can easily run into the tank. The buoy- 
ancy of float ' B ' alone is not sufficient to open the air valve ' H ' 
until the liquid has ascended to the upper float *C\ The com- 
bined action of these two floats shuts the air exhaust valve ' E ' 
and opens the compressed air inlet 'H\ The air pressure dis- 
charges the liquid through the ball check valve and discharge 

pipe *G\ The liquid recedes below 
'C but not until float 'B f has been 
partly uncovered is the weight suf- 
ficient to shut the compressed air inlet 
valve and open the exhaust valve. 
When this occurs, the conditions are 
the same as at starting and the pump- 
ing operation is repeated. Air pres- 
sures of from 30 to 70 pounds have 
been used with this apparatus. 

Fig. 288 shows diagrammatically 
the method employed in a large fac- 
tory for elevating acid by air displace- 
ment. Heavy commercial oil of vitriol 
is raised and the correct quantity is 
allowed to flow into a vat, partially 
filled with pure water, after which a 
small quantity of hydrochloric acid is 
added by hand from acarbo}'. The sul- 
phuric acid is unloaded from the tank 
car (capacity usually about 5,000 gal- 
lons), with the aid of compressed air. 
Fig. 289 is a view of the air compressor and controlling valves 
located near the vats. This air compressor has a displacement 
of 15 cubic feet of free air per minute and operates at about 40 
pounds air pressure. The compressor discharges into an enlarged 
pipe length which acts as a receiver. The tank car is connected 
with the acid reservoir tanks (the latter being provided with air 
vents), and air pressure of about 15 pounds per square inch is 
admitted to the top of the tank. It takes about two hours to 
empty the car. 

There are four heavy iron tanks each with a capacity of 3,500 
gallons. Pipes lead from the bottom of these to the top of a 




Fig. 287 — Automatic Montejus. 



PUMPING 



309 



100-gallon supply tank placed on a lower level. In each of these 
connecting pipes is a check valve to prevent the acid from re- 
turning to the large tanks. Leading from the top of the small 
tank is an air pipe. Normally this is used as a vent to allow the 
acid to flow into the small tank and fill it. When a charge of 
acid is wanted, this vent is closed by a valve near its outlet and 
air pressure is put on this line by opening the proper valve. The 



1 




Air Conpressor 

Electric Uoter 

Pipe Receiver 

Safety Valve (5C») 

Safety Valve [IS?) 

Air Line To Charging Tank 



It Air !!oee 

I Air Pipe lino To Car 

1 Tank Car 

K Pipeo "roa Car Coaneetien 

L Acid Storage Tante (35CO Cnl.-iich) 

I! Acid Charging Te.*-. (100 Onl.) 

K Plpos Tor Raising Acl- To Vats 

» Iloaching Vata 

P Oioek Valves 

I Air Pressure CawQO 



Fig. 288 — System for storing and raising acid. 



acid immediately begins to flow from the bottom of the ioo-gallon 
tank up the line to the vat, a height of about 40 feet, it taking 
about five minutes ordinarily to pump the 100 gallons. This 
arrangement has proven ideal for the purpose of pumping acids 
as there is no mechanism to come in contact with the acid and 
get out of order. Pressure is put on the line only when actually 
pumping and then this pressure is on only the small tank. An- 
other advantage is in having the control where the acid is used. 
The flow of acids from the large tanks to the smaller ones is 
entirely automatic and reversal cannot occur. 



3io 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



Fig. 290 shows a device known as an acid egg or acid elevator 
which is useful for pumping acid or corrosive solutions in com- 
paratively small quantities. Acid is admitted through the open- 
ing on the upper right side and the cock is closed. Upon admitting 
air pressure through the stop cock on the left-hand side, the acid 
is forced up the dip arm which extends to the bottom of the vessel. 

The contents of barrels or tanks, such as oils, acids or other 
fluid or semi-fluid substances, may be easily removed with the 



411 1 1 


1 


^^^H 1 





Fig. 289 — Air plant and controlling 
valves for system shown in Fig. 288. 



aid of compressed air. One very convenient arrangement for 
this purpose is desdribed in Power from which we have repro- 
duced Fig. 291. Care must be taken to avoid using excessive air 
pressure which might burst the barrel. The illustration shows 
how the pipes and fittings were assembled to form the pumping 
rig. The smaller pipe extends through the reducing tee into the 
bottom of the barrel. The nipple screwed into the lower end of 
the reducing tee screws into the hole in the barrel and air is ad- 
mitted through the side of the tee passing between the nipple 
and the discharge pipe into the barrel. 



PUMPING 



311 



The pneumatic displacement principle is most advantageously 
employed for discharging waste products of a plant. These often 
drain by gravity to a sump or other low collecting basin situated 
below the sewer level and it becomes necessary to elevate them a 
few feet so that they will drain away by gravity. The fact that 




Fig. 290 — Acid elevator. 




Fig. 291 — Discharging contents of bar- 
rel by air. 



they usually contain considerable quantities of solid matter in 
suspension and are often corrosive in character makes the or- 
dinary type of reciprocating pump altogether unsuitable for 
handling them. Several special appliances, known as sewage 
ejectors, have been developed for this service. One type, known 
as the Shone ejector, is shown in section in Fig. 292. Sewage is 
admitted through the inlet pipe, 'A,' gradually rising in the ejector 
until it reaches the under side of the bell 'D.' As the sewage con- 
tinues to rise the buoyancy of the bell causes it to rise and open 



312 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



the compressed air admission valve 'E' through the medium of 
the spindle attached to the bell. Air pressure is admitted on 
top of the contents of the ejector, the check valve in the inlet 
closes, that in the outlet pipe'B' opens, and the sewage is forced 
out through 'B', which communicates directly with the gravity 
sewer. As the sewage passes out, its level falls until the cup ' C ' 
is left full of liquid unsupported by the liquid pressure, whose 
weight causes the cup to descend, pulling down the bell and 
spindle, thereby reversing the compressed air admission valve, 
first cutting off the supply of compressed air, and then opening 




Fig. 292 — Shone ejector. 



the exhaust valve through which the air in the ejector exhausts 
down to atmospheric pressure. The cycle is then repeated, the 
ejector continuing to fill and discharge automatically so long as 
there is liquid to pump. 

The Return-Air System. The principal difference between 
the displacement pump and the return-air system is that the 
former method releases the air to atmosphere at practically full 
pressure after the pumping action, whereas the latter system 
returns this air to the compressor to be used over again. The 
return-air system therefore conserves most of this potential 
energy, whereas the displacement system throws it away. As a 
result the return-air system will show an average efficiency of 
about 55 per cent. 

The essentials of the system are an air compressor driven by 
any convenient motive power; an automatic reversing switch in 



PUMPING 



313 



the compressor room; two air lines, each leading from the com- 
pressor through the switch to one pump tank; two tanks sub- 
merged in the fluid pumped, or within easy range of syphon 
action. Provision is, of course, made for automatically replacing 
the air which may be lost in the cycle by leakage, absorption, or 
in the operation of the switch. The single disadvantage of the 
system, as compared with the pneumatic displacement pump, is 
that a separate compressor must be used for the return-air pump- 
ing and it cannot be used for other purposes while pumping. 




Fig. 293 — Return-air system. 



The principle of the return-air system is very simple. Com- 
pressed air is admitted to a tank full of fluid, forcing the fluid out 
through a suitable discharge pipe, its return being prevented by 
a check valve. The air which has displaced the fluid from the 
tank is then drawn back through the air line and switch, through 
the compressor intake valves, the compressor cylinder and the 
discharge valves, until equilibrium is secured throughout the 
system which then contains a charge of air at a certain pressure 
above atmosphere. This equalizing operation takes but a short 
time during which the compressor operates at no load, pressures 
being balanced on both sides of its piston. The moment that 
equilibrium is attained the compressor takes up the load, com- 



3H 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR THE METAL WORKER 



pressing the air in the second tank and drawing its intake, 
already at high pressure, from the first tank and pipe line. As 
pressure increases in the second tank the fluid is discharged, 
while as pressure diminishes in the first tank, the fluid enters. 




Fig. 294 — Pump operated by compressed air for 
pumping oil. 

The cycle of operations will be readily understood from the 
diagram, Fig. 293. 

Steam Pumps Operated by Air. Ordinary steam pumps can 
be operated by compressed air for pumping water but are un- 
economical and stand in an unfavorable light when compared with 
the more usual means for pneumatic pumping. Of course, occa- 
sions arise when a steam pump can be converted to such use ad- 
vantageously, for instance in an emergency or in isolated loca- 
tions, but generally speaking such a course is inadvisable. An 



PUMPING 315 

example is illustrated in Fig. 294. This is a small reciprocating 
steam pump for supplying crude oil to burners. It pumps the 
oil into the chamber beneath the pump proper, where the oil is 
subjected to the pressure of compressed air which is admitted to 
the top of the chamber. In this way any fluctuations caused by 
the pump are equalized, insuring a steady flow of oil. 

There are many pumping operations like this one where com- 
pressed air is the ideal source of power. The simplicity and cer- 
tainty of operation by compressed air far outweigh any other 
consideration. The small amount of power required for opera- 
tion makes the steam or air consumption of secondary importance 
and, in fact, in small pumps of this character it is probable that 
even on the basis of the cost of power the air operated pump 
would often have the advantage. 

Agitating Liquids. In certain processes the solution must be 
agitated. For such purposes air agitation is often superior to 
mechanical means of stirring. It does not introduce any injuri- 
ous foreign substances, as dirt, oil or grease, as a mechanical 
stirrer might do, and in some processes the oxidizing effect of the 
air may be turned to direct account. 

Agitation by means of compressed air may be accomplished 
in one of many ways, as by inserting a jet downwards in the 
midst of the material or by arranging a set of jets around the 
edge of the tank to force the air into the body of the material. 
If gentle agitation is desired, this can easily be accomplished by 
laying one or more perforated pipes on the bottom of the tank 
and connecting same with a source of compressed air. In this 
case it would be desirable to have the perforations facing down- 
wards not only to assist in spreading the rising bubbles of air, 
but also to prevent the solution from entering the air pipe when 
the air pressure is off and perhaps clogging the perforations. 
The perforations nearer the inlet should be made smaller or 
spaced further apart than those further away as otherwise the 
agitation might be more violent in that section than elsewhere. 



INDEX 



A 

Abrasives, Sand Blast, 168 
Acids, Elevating, 308 and 310 
Aftercoolers, 7 and 69 

Tables of Sizes and Capacities, 75-76 
Agitating Liquids, 315 
Air, Brake, 4 

Brushes, 286 

Chucks, 208 

Countershafts, 215 

Engines, 2 

Flow from Jets, 279 

Hoisting, 154, 195 and 228 

Hose, 89 

Lift and Booster, 297 

Line Filter, 120 

Lines, Installation and Care, 79 and 8 

Nozzles, 275 

Operated Ejector, 311 

Operated Vise, 214 

Painting, Lacquering, etc., 283 

Pump, I 

Pumping (Liquids), 297 

Receivers, 3, 7 and 69 

Reheaters, 3. 4. 7 and 72 

Separator, Sand Blast, 171 

Valves, 4 and 46 
Air Compressors: 

Accessories, 69 

Belt Widths, 82 

Centrifugal, 6 and 24 

Classification by drive, 10 

Corliss Steam, 20 

Descriptions, 14 

Details, 46 

Direct Connected Electric, 22 

Direction of Rotation, 81 

Double-acting, 4 and 6 

Duplex, 6 and 19 

First, s 

Foundations, 79 

Gaskets, 83 and 88 

High Pressure, 22 

Inspection and Cleaning, 86 

Installation and Care, 79 

Location, 79 

Long Belt Drive, 12 

Lubrication, 59 and 84 

Pipe Lines, 79 and 88 

Portable, 16-18 

Power Driven, 10 

Regulation, 62 



Rotary, 6 and 24 

Selecting, 9 

Short Belt Drive, 12 and 88 

Single-acting, 6 

Single-stage, 6-7 

Starting, 84 

Steam Drives, 11 and 55 

Steam Piping, 82 

Straight Line, 6 and 18 

Tables of Sizes and Capacities, 25 to 45 

Turbo, 6 and 24 

Two-stage, 6, 7 and 18 

Types, 10 

Vertical, 6 and 14 

Water Piping, 87 
Arbor Press, 215 
Ash Conveying, 127 
Atmospheric Pressure, 6 
Atomizing Oil, 128 
Automatic Montejus, 307 

B 

Balanced Piston Steam Valves, 56 
Barrels Emptied by Air, 310 
Barrel Sand Blast, 172 
Belts, 82 
Bending, 227 
Blow Guns, 270 
Blowing out Steam Lines, 82 
Boiler Shop, Air Uses, 226 
Boiler Tubes, Cleaning, 122 
Booster, Air Lift, 302 

Boring Machines, Tables of Sizes and Capaci- 
ties, 109 
Broaching Machine, 206 
Brushes, Air, 286 
Buffer, 97 



Calking, 243 

Capacities, Aftercoolers, 75-76 

Air Compressors, 25-45 

Air Receivers, 77-78 

Air Reheaters, 78 

Air Separators, 190 

Chucks, Pneumatic, 216 

Close Quarter Drills, 109 

Core Breakers, 165 

Delivered, 9 

Die Sinking and Carving Tools, ni 

Grinder and Buffer, 109 



317 



3i8 



INDEX 



Hammers, Riveting, Chipping, Calking, 
Scaling, 110-112 

Horizontal Cylinder Hoists, 108 

Moisture Traps, 77-78 

Molding Machines, 162-165 

Pneumatic Drills, Reversible and Non- 
reversible, 109 

Portable Motor Hoists, 105 

Punches, 116 

Rammers, Sand, 117 

Riveters, Yoke, 113-117 

Sand Blast Machines, 190-191 

Sand Driers, 192 

Sand Separators, 192 

Sifters, Sand, 161 

Stationary Air Motors, 106 

Ventilating Systems, 193-194 

Vertical Cylinder Hoists, 107 

Wood-boring Machines, 109 
Car, Sand Blast, 172 

Care and Operation, Pneumatic Tools, 119 
Castings Repaired, 161 
Centrifugal Air Compressors, 6 and 24 
Chemical Solutions, Transferring, 303 
Chipping, 156, 205 and 243 
Chronology of Inventions, 2 to 5 
Chucking Work by Air, 208 
Chucks, Pneumatic, Tables of Sizes and 

Capacities, 216 
Classification of Air Compressors, 10 
Cleaning, 122, 269 

Cleaning and Inspecting Compressors, 86 
Cleaning Nozzles, 275 
Cleaning Pneumatic Tools, 119 
Compressed Air, Influence, 5 

Glossary of Terms, 6 

Power Plant, 6 
Compressor Descriptions, 14 
Condenser Tubes, Scaling, 123 
Conveying, 127, 249 and 266 
Cooling Air, 3, 7 and 52 
Core Breakers, Tables of Sizes and Capacities, 

165 
Corliss Air Valves, 49 
Corliss Steam Air Compressors, 20 
Corliss Steam Valves, 58 
Cost of Compressed Air, 9 
Countershaft, Air, 215 
Cupola Lighting, Oil Torch, 161 

D 

"D" Slide Steam Valves, 55 

Delivered Capacity, 9 

Details of Compressors, 46 

Die Sinkers, 104 

Die Sinking and Carving Tools, Table of 

Sizes and Capacities, 118 
Discharge of Air, through Orifices, 279 
Discharge Valves, 7 



Displacement, Piston, 9 

Displacement Pump, 305 

Double-acting Air Compressors, 6 

Drier, Sand, 176 

Driers, Sand, Table of Sizes and Capacities, 

192 
Drilling, 159, 197 and 229 
Drills, Close Quarter, 97 

Pneumatic, 95 

Pneumatic, Table of Sizes and Capacities, 
109 

Rock, 5 
Drop Press, 219 
Drop Steam Valves, 58 
Duplex Air Compressors, 7 
Dust Arresters, 177 

E 

Early Compressed Air Experiments, 1 
Ejector, Air Operated, 311 
Elevating Acids, 308 and 310 
Emptying Barrels by Air, 310 
Enameling, 283 



Filter, Air Line, 120 

First Compressed Air Experiment, 1 

Flue Rollers, 95 

Flue Rolling, 127 

Flue and Tube Welders, 246 

Forge Shop, Air Uses, 217 

Forging Hammers, 217 

Forming, 226 

Foundation, Air Compressor, 79 

Removal, 126 
Foundry, Air Uses, 129 



Gas Engine Starting, 128 
Gaskets, 83 and 88 
Glossary, Compressed Air Terms, 6 
Gloves for Sand Blast, 179 
Grinders and Buffer, 97 

Table of Sizes and Capacities, 109 

H 

Hammers, Calking, 98-100 

Chipping, 98, 99, 100 and 205 

Riveting, 98 

Scaling, 98-100 

Table of Sizes and Capacities, 110-112 
Handling, 249 
Heaters, 247 
Heat of Compression, 8 
Hero's Fountain, 1 
High Pressure Compressors, 23 
Hoisting, 228 and 249 



INDEX 



319 



Costs, 250 

Records of Performance. 263 
Hoists, 92 

Horizontal Cylinder, Tables of Sizes and 
Capacities, 108 

Vertical Cylinder, Table of Sizes and 
Capacities, 107 
Holder-on, 103 
Hoods and Respirators, 179 
Hose, Air, 89 

Sand Blast, 178 
Hose Machine, Sand Blast, 170 
Hurricane-inlet Air Valves, 46 

I 

Influence of Compressed Air, 5 

Inlet Valves, 7 

Inspection and Cleaning Air Compressors, 86 

Installation and Care, Compressors and 

Accessories, 79 
Instructions, Cleaning with Air Jet, 280 
Intake Temperature, 8 
Intercooler, 7 and 52 
Inventions, 2 to 5 



Jacket Cooler, 7 

Jam Riveters, 101 

Jarring Molding Machines, 147 

Jolt Ramming, 147 



Lacquering, 283 
Ladle Drying, 161 
Lapping Machine, 208 
Long Belt Drive, 12 

Lubrication, Air Compressors, 59 and 84 
Steam Cylinders, 83 

M 

Machine Shop, Air Uses, 195 
Metal Coating, 283 and 293 
Metal Drills, 95 
Moisture, 8 

Traps, 7 and 69 

Traps, Table of Sizes and Capacities, 77, 78 
Molding, Jarring, Roll-over, 153 

Jolt Ramming, 147 

Machines, 133 

Machines, Table of Sizes and Capacities, 
152-165 

Roll-over Jarring, 144 

Squeezing, 137 
Motors, 92, 94 

Portable, Table of Sizes and Capacities, 105 

Stationary, Table of Sizes and Capacities, 
106 



N 

Nozzles for Cleaning, 275 
For Sand Blasting, 167 



Oil Burners, Tables of Sizes and Capacities, 

165 
Oil Burning, 128 
Oiling, Pneumatic Tools, 119 
Oil Torches, 160 

Operation, Air Compressors and Accessories, 
79 

Jarring Machine, 147 

Plain Squeezing Machines, 138 

Pneumatic Tools, 119 

Roll-over Jarring Machines, 146 

Split Pattern Squeezers, 140 
Outlet Valves, 7 
Overloading Pneumatic Tools, 120 



Painting, 283 
Pattern Carvers, 104 
Piping, Air Compressor, 82 

Water. 87 
Pipe Lines, Installation and Care, 79 and 88 
Piston Displacement, 9 
Piston, Inlet Valves, 4 
Piston Steam Valves, 56 
Plate Air Valves, 50 
Pneumatic Displacement Pump, 305 
Pneumatic Presses, 205 
Pneumatic Tools, 91 

Care and Operation, 119 
Pneumatic Tube Dispatch, 2 
Poppet Air Valves, 46 
Portable Compressors, 16-18 
Power-driven Air Compressors, 10 
Power Plant, Air Uses, 122 

Compressed Air, 6 
Presses, 206 
Pressing, 226 
Pressure, Atmospheric, 6 
Protective Devices, 73 
Pump, Air Lift, 297 

Montejus, 307 

Pneumatic Displacement, 305 

Reciprocating, 314 

Return Air, 312 
Pumping, 297 

Chemical Solutions, 307 
Punches, Table of Sizes and Capacities, 116 
Punching, 228 

R 

Rammers, 103 and 129 

Table of Sizes and Capacities, 117 
Reamers, 95 



320 



INDEX 



Reaming, 229 
Receivers, 3, 7, 69 

Table of Sizes and Capacities, 77-78 
Reciprocating Pumps, 314 
Records of Performance: 

Air Brush Painting, etc., 291 

Chipping and Calking, 206 and 243 

Drilling and Reaming, 198 and 229 

Hoisting and Handling, 263 

Molding, 142, 147, 148 

Riveting, 233 

Sand Blasting, 184 

Sand Ramming, 129 

Welding, 246 
Regulation of Air Compressors, 62 
Reheaters, Air, 3, 4, 7 and 72 

Table of Sizes and Capacities, 78 
Repairing Castings, 161 
Respirators and Hoods, 179 
Return-air Pumping System, 312 
Rivet Busters, 98 
Riveters, Jam, 10 1 

Yoke, 10 1 

Yoke, Table of Sizes and Capacities, 113 
-117 
Rivet Heaters, 247 
Riveting, 231 
Rock Drill, 5 
Rolling Boiler Flues, 127 
Roll-over Jarring Molding, 144 and 153 
Rotary Air Compressors, 6 and 24 
Rotating Sand Blast Table, 172 



Safety Devices, 73 

Sand Blast, Abrasives, 168 

Air Separator, 171 

Barrel, 172 

Condition of Air, 168 

Dust Arresters, 177 

Gloves, 179 

Hose, 178 

Hose Machine, 170 

Machines, Tables of Sizes and Capacities, 
190-191 

Miscellaneous Uses, 188 

Nozzles, 167 

Records of Performance, 184 

Respirators and Hoods, 179 

Rooms, 179 

Rotating Table, 172 

Table or Car, 172 
Sand Blasting, 166 
Sand Drier, 176 

Rammers, 103 and 129 

Separator, 175 

Sifters, 132 

Sifters, Table of Sizes and Capacities, 161 
Scale Removers, 122 



Selecting the Air Compressor, 9 
Separators, Air, 171 

Air, Table of Sizes and Capacities, 190 

Sand, 175 

Sand, Table of Sizes and Capacities, 192 

Water, 54 
Shaping, 227 

Short Belt Drive, 12 and 88 
Sifters, Sand, 132 
Single-acting Air Compressors, 6 
Sizes, Aftercoolers, 75-76 

Air Compressors, 25-45 

Air Receivers, 77—78 

Air Reheaters, 78 

Air Separators, 190 

Chucks, Pneumatic, 216 

Close Quarter Drills, 109 

Core Breakers, 165 

Die Sinking and Carving Tools, 118 

Grinders and Buffers, 109 

Hammers, Riveting, Chipping, Calking, 
Scaling, 110-112 

Horizontal Cylinder Hoists, 108 

Moisture Traps, 77-78 

Molding Machines, 162-165 

Oil Burners, 165 

Pneumatic Drills, Reversible and Non- 
reversible, 109 

Portable Motor Hoists, 105 

Punches, 116 

Rammers, Sand, 117 

Riveters, Yoke, 113-117 

Sand Blast Machines, 190-19 1 

Sand Driers, 192 

Sand Separators, 192 

Sifters, Sand, 161 

Stationary Air Motors, 106 

Ventilating Systems, 193-194 

Vertical Cylinder Hoists, 107 

Wood-boring Machines, 109 
Stage Compression, 2-4 
Starting, 128 
Stay Bolt Drivers, 246 
Steam, Cylinder Lubrication, 83 

Drives, 55 

Piping, 82 

Valve Setting, 84 

Valves, Balanced, Piston, 56 

Valves, Corliss, 58 

Valves, Drop, 58 

Valves, Plain "D" Slide, 55 
Structural Steel Plant Air Uses, 226 



Table, Sand Blast, 172 
Tables, Sizes and Capacities: 
Aftercoolers, 75-76 
Air Compressors, 25-45 
, Air Receivers, 77 - 78 



INDEX 



321 



Air Reheaters, 78 

Air Separators, 190 

Chucks, Pneumatic, 216 

Close Quarter Drills, 109 

Core Breakers, 165 

Die Sinking and Carving Tools, 118 

Grinders and Buffers, 109 

Hammers, Riveting, Chipping, Calking, 
Scaling, 110-112 

Horizontal Cylinder Hoists, 108 

Moisture Traps, 77-78 

Molding Machines, 162-165 

Oil Burners, 165 

Pneumatic Drills, Reversible and Non- 
reversible, 109 

Portable Motor Hoists, 105 

Punches, 116 

Rammers, Sand, 117 

Riveters, Yoke, 113-117 

Sand Blast Machines, 190-191 

Sand Driers, 192 

Sand Separators, 192 

Sifters, Sand, 161 

Stationary Air Motors, 106 

Ventilating Systems, 193-194 

Vertical Cylinder Hoists, 107 

Wood-boring Machines, 109 
Temperature, Intake, 8 
Testing, 247 
Tools, Pneumatic, 91 
Torches, Oil, 160 

Transferring Chemical Solutions, 303 
Traps, Moisture, 6, 9 and 71 
Trimming, 243 
Tube and Flue Welders, 246 
Two-stage Air Compressors, 6, 7 and 18 
Types of Compressors, 10 



U 

Uses for Blow Guns, 270 
Uses of Air, Boiler Shop, 226 

Forge Shop, 217 

Foundry, 129 

Machine Shop, 195 

Power Plant, 122 

Structural Steel Plant. 226 



Valves, Air, 46 

Automatic, 7 

Corliss, 49 

Hurricane-inlet, 46 

Inlet, 7 

Mechanical, 7 

Outlet, 7 

Plate, so 

Poppet, 46 

Steam, 55 
Ventilating Systems, 177 

Table of Sizes and Capacities, 193-194 
Vertical Compressors, 14-18 
Vise, Air Operated, 214 



W 



Water Piping, 87 
Water Separator, 54 
Welders, 246 
Whitewashing, 283 
Wood Borers, 95 



Yoke Riveters, 10 1 



ENGINEERING AND TECHNICAL BOOKS 

The Clark Book Co., Inc., will be pleased to send you any of the following books 
or sets of books for ten days 1 examination. 

PREPAID AND WITHOUT OBLIGATION 

(Reference or membership in engineering society required, or in lieu of 
this a check for the amount involved, which will not be deposited, or cashed 
unless you purchase the books. Otherwise the check will be returned to you 
when you return the books in undamaged condition.) 

COMPLETE SETS AT REDUCED PRICES 

may be had on terms of $3 down and $3 per month. In addition to the sets 
noted below, we will be glad to quote special discounts on any combination 
of three or more books desired. 

COSTS AND EQUIPMENT 

Gillette's — 'Cost Data* (All civil engineering) $5.00 

Gillette's — ' Handbook of Rock Excavation. Methods and Cost ' 5.00 

Gillette's — ' Handbook of Earth Excavatiop, Methods and Cost*. Ready in June, 1917 5.00 

Dana's — ' Handbook of Construction Plant ' 5.00 

Gillette & Dana — ' Cost Keeping and Management Engineering ' 3 . 50 

STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING 

Kirkham — 'Structural Engineering' 5.00 

Malcolm — ' Graphic Statics ' 3 . 00 

Steinman — 'Melan's Steel Arches and Suspension Bridges' 3- 00 

Tyrrell — 'Mill Buildings' 4.00 

Tyrrell — 'Artistic Bridge Design' 3-00 

Wells — 'Steel Bridge Designing ' 2.50 

BUILDING WORK 

Walker's — ' Building Estimator's Reference Book ' 10.00 

Gilbreth — ' Field System ' 3 • 00 

Gilbreth — ' Bricklaying System ' 3.00 

CONCRETE 

Cochran — ' Inspection of Concrete Construction ' 4.00 

Dodge's — ' Diagrams for the Design of Reinforced Concrete ' 4 . 00 

Gillette & Hill — ' Concrete Construction, Methods and Cost ' 5 • 00 

Heidenreich's — ' Engineer's Pocketbook of Reinforced Concrete ' 3 • 00 

Reid — ' Concrete and Reinforced Concrete Construction ' 5.00 

Reuterdahl — ' Theory and Design of Reinforced Concrete Arches ' 2.00 

Taylor's — ' Practical Cement Testing ' 3 • 00 

Tyrrell — 'Concrete Bridges and Culverts' 3- 00 

RAILWAY WORK 

Lovell's — ' Practical Switchwork ' 1 . 00 

Smith — 'Maintenance of Way Standards' 1.50 

Smith — ' Standard Turnouts ' 1 . 00 

Kindelan's — 'Trackman's Helper,' revised by Dana and Trimble. Ready in Feb., 191 7 2.00 

Clark Book Company, Inc. 27 William Street, New York City 



MISCELLANEOUS 

Robinson's — 'Military Preparedness and the Engineer' $1.50 

Frye's — 'Civil Engineers' Pocketbook' 5.00 

Haring — ' Law of Contract ' 4 . 00 

Taylor's — 'Surveyor's Handbook' 2.00 

Taylor's — ' Backbone of Perspective ' 1.00 

Parsons — ' Land Drainage ' 1 . 50 

Mayer's Telephone Construction 3.00 

COMPLETE SETS 

Cost Data, Construction Plant, Cost Keeping 12.00 

Structural Engineering, Graphic Statics, Mill Buildings, Steel Bridge Designing . . . 12.00 
Inspection of Concrete, Gillette & Hill's Concrete Methods and Costs, Reid's Concrete 

Construction 12.00 

HANDBOOK OF COST DATA 

By Halbert P. Gillette, Consulting Engineer, Mem. Am. Soc. C. E., 
Am. Inst. Mech. Eng. 

Handbook binding, 4^4 x 7 inches $5.00 

Eighteen hundred pages of costs, not prices. Almost every conceivable 
civil engineering operation, from cement sidewalks to railroad systems, divided 
as follows: 

SUBJECTS 

Principles of engineering economics; earth excavation; rock excavation, quarrying and 

crushing; roads, pavements and walks; stone masonry; concrete and reinforced concrete 

construction; water works; sewers; timber work; buildings; railways; bridges and culverts; 

steel and iron construction; engineering and surveys; miscellaneous cost data. 

The value of the book lies in the fact that the conditions surrounding each operation on which 

costs are reported are so completely described that the costs may be accurately translated into 

terms of the same operation under other conditions. 

The sale of this book exceeds, we believe, that of any other engineering work. 

Cement Age: "Systems of cost keeping are described in the first part of the book, which con- 
tractors will find valuable." 

The National Builder: "Mr. Gillette does not seem to have overlooked a single item in the 
contracting world, where costs and time are factors in making up an estimate." 

Railway Age Gazette: "The author was a practicing engineer and contractor for nearly twenty 
years before he prepared the first edition, so the reader may feel that the book is not the 
work of an office man." 

Canadian Engineer: "'It is safe to say that on any question on which the engineer requires costs, 
they may be found in this book." 

HANDBOOK OF ROCK EXCAVATION, METHODS AND COST 

By H. P. Gillette 

Handbook size and binding, illustrated $500 

Best modern practice in drilling and handling rock of all kinds, under all 

conditions, illustrating latest machines and methods, with cost of actual work 

done. About 800 pages. 

Chapters: I, Rocks and Their Properties; II, Methods and Cost of Hand Drilling; III, 
Drill Bits, Shape, Sharpening and Tempering; IV, Machine Drills and Their Use; V, Cost 
of Machine Drilling; VI, Steam, Compressed Air and Other Power Plants; VII, Cable Drills. 

Clark Book Company, Inc. 27 William Street, New York City 



Well Drills, Augers and Cost Data; VIII, Core Drills; IX, Explosives; X, Charging and 
Firing; XI, Methods of Blasting; XII, Loading and Transporting Rock; XIII, Quarrying 
Dimension Stone; XIV, Open Cut Excavation in Quarries, Pits and Mines; XV, Railroad 
Rock Excavation and Boulder Blasting; XVI, Canal Excavation; XVII, Trench Work; 
XVIII, Sub-Aqueous Rock Excavation. 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

By F. Kindelan. Revised by R. T. Dana and A. F. Trimble. Ready in 

Feb., 1917. 
Handbook size and binding $2 . 00 

Written to help the man on the track, by giving him the results of observa- 
tion and study of track work on the railroads of the United States for the last 
twenty years. 

Contents: I, Construction; II, Spiking and Gaging; III, General Spring Work; IV, 
Drainage; V, Summer Track Work; VI, Cutting Weeds; VII, Ballasting; VIII, Renewal 
of Rails; IX, Effects of the Wave Motion of Rail on Track Rail Movements; X, General 
Fall Track Work; XI, Fences; XII, General Winter Work; XIII, Bucking Snow; XIV, 
Laying Out Curves; XV, Elevation of Curves; XVI, Lining Curves; XVII, Mountain Roads; 
XVIII, Frogs and Switches; XIX, Use and Care of Track Tools; XX, Tie Plates; XXI, 
Wrecking; XXII, General Instructions; XXIII, Miscellaneous. 

HANDBOOK OF EARTH EXCAVATION, METHODS AND COST 

By Halbert P. Gillette. Ready June, 191 7. 

Handbook size and binding, over 800 pages, illustrated $5 . 00 

A complete history and encyclopedia in modern earth-moving methods, 

with detailed costs for the different methods and equipment used. 

Chapters: Properties of Earth, Measurement and Classification, Boring and Sounding, 
Clearing and Grubbing, Loosening and Shoveling, Wheelbarrows, Carts, Wagons, etc., Scrapers 
and Graders, Cars, Steam Shovel Work, Bucket Excavation, Cableways and Conveyors, Trench- 
ing by Hand, by Machinery, Ditches and Canals, Embankments, Earth Dams and Levees, 
Dredging, Hydraulic Excavation, Miscellaneous. 

HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION PLANT WITH APPENDIX OF 
PRINCIPAL MANUFACTURERS 

By Richard T. Dana, Consulting Engineer, Mem. Am. Soc. C. E., Mem. 
A. I. M. E., Mem. Am. Soc. Eng. Contr., Mem. Gillette & Dana, Appraisal 
Engineers. 

4^4 x 7, Flexible Leather, 700 pages $5.00 

The only complete and impartial 'catalogue' of construction equipment 
in existence. 

Engineering Record: "Much valuable data are given as to the cost of operation of certain types 
of machinery — they furnish practically the first published basis for selecting machinery." 

The American City: "Mr. Dana's volume gives the information most necessary to engineers in 
making estimates of construction costs and in executing plans." 

The Excavating Engineer: "Undoubtedly the most complete handbook of construction plant 
ever published. Every conceivable type of machinery and equipment." 

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Concrete Cement Age: "The descriptions include practically every type of equipment, as well as 

cost data." 
Western Engineering: ". . . an abstract of almost every trade catalogue in existence. " 
Railway Review: ". . . presenting between two covers that which the engineer often 

searches through masses of trade catalogues and stacks of card index files to find." 
The National Builder: ' ' Many machines, appliances, methods and contrivances the ordinary 

contractor knows but little about are here fully described and illustrated." 

COST KEEPING AND MANAGEMENT ENGINEERING 

By H. P. Gillette, Consulting Engineer, Mem. Am. Soc. C. E., Am. Soc. 
M. E., and Richard T. Dana, Consulting Engineer, Mem. Am. Soc. C. E., 
Am. Inst. M. E., Am. Soc. Eng. Contr., Mem. Gillette & Dana, Appraisal 
Engineers. 

Cloth, 6x9 inches, 350 pages . . $3.50 

This work is to the construction engineer what Taylor's 'Shop Management' and 'Principles 
of Scientific Management' are to the shop foreman and superintendent. 

The science of engineering management is just beginning to be recognized, and Gillette 
and Dana have done much, in this book, to forward and develop it. 

Mr. Gillette is the author of the now famous 'Handbook of Cost Data', and Mr. Dana is 
the author of the companion work, ' Handbook of Construction Plant '. To those familiar with 
these two books this insures the practical natue of ' Cost Keeping and Management Engineering'. 

COMPLETE CHAPTER HEADINGS 

I, The Ten Laws of Management; II, Rules for Securing Minimum Cost; III, Piece Rate, 
Bonus and Other Systems of Payment; IV, Measuring the Output of Workmen; V, Cost 
Keeping; VI, Office Appliances and Methods; VII, Bookkeeping for Small Contractors; VIII, 
Miscellaneous Cost Report Blanks and Systems of Cost Keeping. 

SURVEYORS' HANDBOOK 

By T. U. Taylor. 
Leather, 328 pages, illustrated $2.00 

Describes the instruments, their care and adjustment, and the methods practiced in making 
surveys of all kinds. Extensive tables are given to facilitate calculations. 

CHAPTER HEADINGS 

Chain Surveying: Compass Surveying; Transit Survey; Calculation of Areas; Division 
of Land; Leveling; Topographic Survey; Railroad . Survey ; Earthwork; City Surveying; 
Plotting and Lettering; Government Surveying; Trigonometric Formulas; Tables, etc., etc. 

STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING 

By J. E. Kirkham, Prof. Civil Engineering, Iowa State College, Consulting 
Bridge Engineer, Iowa Highway Commission. Formerly Designing En- 
gineer with American Bridge Co. 

Cloth, 6 x 9, 675 pages, 452 illustrations, 3 plates $5.00 

Here is a work so complete, and elementary, that almost anyone interested in practical 
structural work can get from it a thorough knowledge of its principles and practice. 

For many years the author was required to 'break in' new men in draughting and designing 
rooms, and this has taught him the needs of the man who requires a workable knowledge of 
the subject. 

Clark Book Company, Inc. 27 William Street, New York City 



Nothing but elementary mathematics is presupposed. As the author says in his preface, 
the book was designed to be understood without the aid of a library of reference works. 

There are fourteen chapters as follows: I, Preliminary; II, Structural Drafting; III, Funda- 
mental Elements; IV, Theoretical Treatment of Beams; V, Theoretical Treatment of Columns; 
VI, Rivets, Pins, Rollers and Shafting; VII, Maximum Reactions; VIII, Graphic Statics; 
IX, Influence Lines; X, Descriptions of I-Beams and Plate Girders; XI, Design of Simple 
Railway Bridges; XII, Design of Simple Highway Bridges; XIII, Skew Bridges; XIV, Design 
of Buildings. 

MELAN'S THEORY OF ARCHES AND SUSPENSION BRIDGES 

Translated by D. B. Steinman, C. E. Ph.D., Prof, of Civil Engineering, 
Univ. Idaho, author of ' Suspension Bridges and Cantilevers. ' 

Cloth, 6 x 9, 310 pages, 120 illustrations $3.00 

This is a complete, authorized translation of Professor Melan's masterpiece on the theory 
of arches. 

Contents: The Flexible Arch and the Unstiffened Cable; The Stiffened Suspension Bridge; 
The Arched Rib (the Three Hinged Arch, Arched Rib with End Hinges, Arched Rib without 
Hinges, The Cantilever Arch, the Continuous Arch); Arch and Suspension Systems with 
Braced Web; Combined Systems; Appendix — The Elastic Theory Applied to Masonry and 
Concrete Arches, Temperature Variation in Steel and Masonry Bridges. 

Engineering News: "It is by far the most extensive theoretical study of this subject known to 
the reviewer." 

Journal Western Society of Engineers: "Professor Steinman has done a great service to all 
English-speaking engineers in translating this treatise on Arches and Suspension Bridges 
by Professor Melan. The German method of starting at the beginning and taking nothing 
for granted is followed. In the opening chapters a masterly exposition of the conditions 
of statical determinacy and indeterminacy is given, as also the general forms into which 
hinged and fixed arches may be resolved. The book deserves a place in the library of 
every practising engineer who has anything to do with structures of any kind, and will 
amply compensate him for all time devoted to the study of its pages." 

DIAGRAMS FOR THE DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE 

STRUCTURES 

By G. F. Dodge. 
Cloth, 15^ x 12K, 112 pages, 43 diagrams $4.00 

Founded on diagrams prepared by the author for his own use when employed as a designing 
engineer for a reinforcing company. No experience in mathematics required by those who do 
their designing from this book. 

Table of Contents: Formula? and Discussion; Straight Line Variations of Stress; Slabs; 
Cinder Concrete; Rectangular Beams; T- Beams; Compressive Reinforcement; Hooped 
Columns, Ultimate Loads; Hooped Columns, Working Loads; Parabolic Variation of Stress, 
Ultimate Loads; Slabs; Rectangular Beams. 

Miscellaneous — Deflections; Impact; Weight and Volumes of Beams, Columns and Slabs, 
Reactions and Strengths of Steel Beams; Bending Moments of Beams and Channels in ft.- 
Ibs.; Bending Moment and Shear Formulae; also contains numerous diagrams; Appendix. 



MILL BUILDINGS DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION 

With chapters comparing the costs of steel, wood and concrete buildings, and 
on exporting steel buildings. 

Clark Book Company, Inc. 27 William Street, New York City 



By Henry Grattan Tyrrell, C. E., author of 'Mill Building Construction,' 
'Concrete Bridges and Culverts', 'History of Bridge Engineering', 'Artistic 
Bridge Design', etc. 

Cloth, 6x9, 490 pages, 652 illustrations, with chapter comparing wood, 
steel and concrete buildings $4.00 

The final efficiency of an industrial plant depends not merely upon the proper design of 
structural members, but also upon a great variety of special problems which might be classified 
as the economics of design. 

'Mill Buildings' thoroughly covers the latter as well as the former, in fact it is this thorough 
treatment of the economic feature which distinguishes the book from others on the same 
subject. 

CHAPTER HEADINGS 

General Features and Requirements of Economic Design; Location and Site; Purpose and 
Arrangement; Number of Stories; Walls; Cost of Steel Buildings; Comparative Cost of Wood, 
Steel and Concrete Buildings; Roof Covering and Drainage; Lighting and Ventilating; Static 
Roof Loads; Floor Loads; Snow and Wind Loads; Crane and Miscellaneous Loads; Steel 
Framing; Wood Framing; Concrete Framing; Northern Light Roof Framing; Foundations 
and Anchorages; Wall Details; Ground Floors; Upper Floors; Metal Arch Floors; Roofs, 
Non- Waterproof; Roofings, Tile, Slate, Asbestos, Slate, Wood, Composition Roofing; Corru- 
gated Iron; Sheet Metal Roofing; Cornices, Gutters and Down spouts; Ventilators, Glass, 
Skylights, Windows; Monitor Windows, Doors; Factory Foot Bridges; Paint, Painting; 
Painting Specifications for Structural Steel Work; Engineering Department; Estimating the 
Quantities; Estimating the Costs; Approximate Estimating Prices; The Drafting Office; 
Organization of Drafting Office; Drafting Office Practice; Cost of Structural Work Shop 
Drawings; Directions for Exporting Steel Buildings. 



ARTISTIC BRIDGE DESIGN 

By Henry Grattan Tyrrell, C. E., author of 'Mill Building Construction', 
'Concrete Bridges and Culverts', 'History of Bridge Engineering', and 'Mill 
Buildings'. 

Cloth, 6}i x gj4, 290 pages, illustrated $3.00 

Long after the cost of a bridge is forgotten, its appearance stands for or against its designer, 
and this book is designed to help the engineer or architect who realizes this, to combine beauty, 
utility and economy in his work. 

The work is divided as follows: 

Subject Pages 

Introduction by Thomas Hastings, Importance of Bridges, Reasons and Standards for Art 

in Bridges, Causes for Lack of Art, and Special Features of Bridges 34 

Principles of Design IS 

Ordinary Steel Structures 6 

Cantilever Bridges 6 

Metal Arches 16 

Suspension Bridges 10 

Masonry Bridges 24 

Illustrations and Descriptions 157 

These last are taken from representative structures all over the world, covering the general 
classes mentioned above. The illustrations alone justify the book. 

American has the reputation for having "the greatest number of bridges, and the ugliest." 
Mr. Tyrrell's work is an effort to reform the policy that has given us this record. 

Clark Book Company, Inc. 27 William Street, New York City 



FIELD SYSTEM 

By Frank B. Gilbreth. 
Handbook size and binding, 200 pages $3 . 00 

Mr. Gilbreth made the ' Cost-plus-a-fixed-sum ' contract famous. This 'Field System' 
is the book of instructions issued to all his foremen, superintendents, time and material clerks, 
accounting departments, etc. Valuable rules for running a job. 

STEEL BRIDGE DESIGNING 

By Melville B. Wells, C. E., Assoc. Prof. Bridge & Struc. Eng., Armour 
Inst. Technology. 

Cloth, 6x9 inches, 250 pages, 47 illustrations, 27 folding plates . . . . $2 . 50 

A text-book for engineering students and a reference work for designing offices. 

The twenty-seven folding plates, which are reproductions of actual drawings taken from 
standard practice, make the book expecially valuable. 

Another valuable feature, especially for the draughting room, is the copy of the general 
specifications for steel railway bridges, adopted by the American Railway Engineering Associa- 
tion, elaborately cross-indexed in this book. 

CHAPTER HEADINGS 

Engineers' Work and Contracts, Bridge Manufacture; Rivets; The Design of a Roof Truss; 
Types and Details of Highway Bridges; Design of a Riveted Truss Highway Bridge; Types 
and Details of Railway Bridges; Design of a Plate Girder Railroad Bridge; Design of a Riveted 
Truss Railroad Bridge; A Pin Connected Bridge; Shop Drawings; Strength of Materials; 
Bibliography; Specifications. 

CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION, METHODS AND COST 

By H. P. Gillette, Consulting Engineer, and Charles S. Hill, Associate 
Editor of Engineering and Contracting. 

6}4 x g}4, cloth, 690 pages . $5.00 

Devoted to the economics of concrete for the builder of concrete structures. The authors 
are constantly in touch with the best and cheapest methods of concrete construction; Mr. 
Gillette, through his field work, and Mr. Hill, as editor of Engineering and Contracting. 

Chapters: Methods and Cost of Selecting and Preparing Materials for Concrete, Theory 
and Practice of Proportioning Concrete; Making and Placing Concrete by Hand; Making 
and Placing Concrete by Machine; Depositing Concrete Under Water and of Subaqueous 
Grouting; Making and Using Rubble and Asphaltic Concrete; Laying Concrete in Freezing 
Weather; Finishing Concrete Surfaces; Form Construction; Concrete Pile and Pier Construc- 
tion; Heavy Concrete Work in Fortifications, Locks, Dams, Breakwaters and Piers; Con- 
structing Bridge Piers and Abutments; Constructing Retaining Walls; Constructing Concrete 
Foundations for Pavement; Constructing Sidewalks, Pavements, Curbs and Gutters; Lining 
Tunnels and Subways; Constructing Arch and Girder Bridges; Culvert Construction; Rein- 
forced Concrete Building Construction; Building Construction of Separately Molded Members; 
Aqueduct and Sewer Construction; Constructing Reservoirs and Tanks; Constructing Orna- 
mental Work; Miscellaneous Methods and Costs; Waterproofing Concrete Structures. 

ENGINEERS' POCKETBOOK OF REINFORCED CONCRETE 

By E. Lee Heidenreich, Mem. Am. Soc. Test. Materials; M. W. S. E.; 

Mem. Am. Inst. Min. Eng. 
Flexible leather, 374 pages, 4K x 6^ inches, 80 tables, illustrated . . . $3 .00 

Clark Book Company, Inc. 27 William Street, New York City 



